pbl教学教学案例
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pbl教学教学案例范文第1篇
一案例教学法在当代高等教育中的意义
（一）案例教学法与传统教学法的区别
案例教学法由美国哈佛大学首创，该方法是在教师的指导下，根据知识体系的掌握要求，利用案例引导教学活动，组织学生进行学习、研讨和探究的一种教学方法[2]。
第一，从教学目的来说，传统教学重在理论知识的传授，其缺点是缺乏理论联系实际的结合点，容易造成理论脱离实际的弊病。而案例教学重在实际问题的解决，其教学案例主要来自科研和生活实践，具有真实性、完整性、典型性、代表性。通过案例的学习，能掌握隐藏在案例后的完整的知识体系，并在此过程中，训练学生独立分析问题和解决问题的能力。
第二，从教学材料和授课方式来说，传统教学所使用的教学材料一般都是具有一定稳定性的教科书，其典型授课方式是以“教师讲，学生听”为主。而案例教学使用的教学材料是独特的教学案例，并且这些教学案例一般都是随时代的发展不断更新。
第三，在传统的教学中，教师只要教材熟悉、思路清晰、表达清楚，使学生掌握了教师的“真理”，责任就算尽到了。而在案例教学中，教师虽然可能比学生懂得多，但教师的角色并不是权威，应定位为案例教学的设计者、引导者、组织者和案例讨论的参与者。
第四，从学生的角色和责任来说，在传统教学中，学生处于消极、被动和受支配地位。其角色是认真的听讲者和知识的接受者。而在案例教学中，不仅强调教师的“教”（引导），更强调学生的“学”（自主学习和研讨），以学生为中心，学生在整个教学活动中处于主导地位。
（二）案例教学法的重要意义
案例教学法有如下作用和意义：通过真实性的案例，能很好地解决理论与实际脱节的矛盾，便于理论联系实际；通过师生角色的转变，有助于调动师生教与学的积极性；在解决现实案例的过程中，首先需要学生根据案例的需要，不断地收集、分析、学习和处理各种知识和信息，从而有助于培养学生的信息收集、学习和处理能力；在解决现实案例的过程中，还需要学生运用所学的知识体系解决现实问题，从而有助于提高学生分析问题和解决问题的能力；解决问题的途径并非唯一，学生在案例分析过程中，可以站在不同的立场、多角度地分析和解决问题，从而有助于培养学生的创新能力。
PBL（Problem-Based Learning）即“基于问题的学习”，由加拿大的McMaster大学首创[3]。该方法以问题为核心，其核心思想有两个：一是将问题作为学习和整合新知识的起点，以问题为载体，使学生在解决问题的过程中学到必要的知识；二是不单纯只为获得知识，在获得知识的同时，强调问题的解决。其教学的主要形式是：以学生为中心，在教师的引导下，以小组为单位围绕着一个个的问题进行讨论和学习。
PBL教学与案例教学有极强的互补性。在案例教学中，一个案例就是一个实际情境的描述，在这个情境中，往往包含着多个疑难问题。换句话说，要解决一个代表现实课题的真实性案例，需要将其分解成许多个问题，通过每个问题的解决，最终解决整个案例。同时，在解决问题的过程中掌握每个问题背后所包含的知识，所有知识的集合则构成了案例背后隐藏的知识体系。也就是说，在进行案例教学的过程中，需要用到“基于问题的教学”；而“基于问题的教学”中的“问题”，并不是随意设置的，需要以案例解决的路线为指引进行设置。
三案例教学法和PBL教学法的实践探索
（一）课程平台
我们以生物信息学为课程平台。生物信息学是用数理和信息科学的观点、理论和方法去研究生命现象、组织和分析呈现指数增长的生物数据的一门学科[4]。它主要包括两重含义：一是对海量数据的收集、整理与服务，即管理好这些数据；二是从中发现新的规律，即利用好这些数据。它是生命科学领域里一门极为重要的工具课程，可整合和串联各门主干课程。
（二）具体实施
1分组
对班级学生进行分组，分组的依据主要是每个学生能力的高低，将能力互补的学生分在一个学习小组中，每组控制在4-5人左右。
2提出教学目标，布置真实性任务（案例）
案例教学法中案例的选择并非随意拿来，而是要根据教学内容和教学对象的不同，精心选择，精心设汁。其一，所选案例要贴切、恰当，能全面反映教学内容。其二，所选案例要生动，具有吸引力，这样才能调动学生的积极性，吸引学生积极参与、积极思考。其三，所选案例要难易适度，充分考虑到学生的个体差异，尽量选择和设计出所有学生都可理解接受的案例。基于上述三点，我们选择了“某个新基因的发现与鉴定”这一真实性科研课题作为案例。
3以案例完成的步骤为主线，设置相应的问题集
教师在选择好案例后要花一定时间仔细研读思考，对下列问题一定要成竹在胸：选用此案例主要想解决什么问题？案例将可能涉及哪些方面的知识？通过研读思考、翻阅教材和资料，将相关信息整理出来，归纳成问题集，作为学生解决案例的线索和依据。按照这个原则，我们设置了以下11个问题，构成问题集：（1）生物数据库是如何架构的，对于互联网上常见的生物数据库，该如何识别与理解？（2）如何通过国际上的生物数据库检索系统，对数据库内的生物分子数据进行使用？（3）如何通过各种常见的双序列比对软件完成对生物分子的两两比对？（4）如何通过各种常见的多序列比对软件完成对生物分子的多重比对？（5）如何利用EST数据库获得基因重叠群？（6）如何完成新基因的拼接获得？（7）如何完成所得基因的理化性质分析？（8）如何完成所得基因的启动区域分析？（9）如何完成所得基因的CDS区域分析？（10）如何完成新基因的人工翻译？（11）如何完成所得蛋白质的结构与功能分析？
4定期讨论
定期安排学生集中讨论。每次讨论主要完成两方面工作：一是对问题解决和案例完成进展情况进行报告，二是对所遇到的难点进行互相交流。教师全程参与，对疑难点做出提示和建议。
5成果汇报
案例完成后，进行集中汇报。让学生对期间所做的工作、获得的结果进行汇报。
6教师评价、反馈
由指导教师对案例完成过程及结果进行点评，对学生掌握知识的程度及学生的科研、应用能力进行评价，并提出可进一步提高的方向。
7延伸阶段
鉴于生物信息学都是在临近毕业时进行教学，对于有兴趣的学生，可以将案例扩展成毕业设计，进行模块化分流教学。
（三）案例教学法与PBL教学法的实施效果
1激发了学生的学习兴趣，提高了教学质量
学习是一种满足人类基本需要的方式，兴趣则是最好的老师。案例教学法与PBL教学法的实施，大大转变了师生的角色和观念。使教师认识到学生作为主体参与教学的重要性，逐渐从知识论转向主体论，从知识的传授者、教学的组织领导者转变成为学习过程中的咨询者、引导者和伙伴；树立了“以学生为中心”的教育理念，确立了学生全面发展、能力本位的价值取向。同时，真正落实了学生在教学活动中的主体地位，改变了他们以往个体式、接受式、知识学习导向的学习方式，形成了合作式、探究式、能力培养导向的学习方式，让每一位学生积极主动地参与了学习过程。在此过程中，学生的学习兴趣大大增强，教学效果十分良好，教学质量有了明显的提升。
2促进了对学生能力的培养
古人云，“授之以鱼不如授之以渔。”叶圣陶先生也认为，“教是为了不教。”究其根本，实际上都在强调学校应该教会学生自主学习，这样才能在知识的不断更新中挺立潮头，永远立于不败之地。通过案例教学法和PBL教学法的实施，我们确立了以教师为引导、学生为主体的教学模式。通过真实性很强的案例与相匹配的问题集，把知识获取方式由灌输式变为探究式，大大提升了学习效果。并且在此过程中，极大地提高了学生分析问题、解决问题的能力，增强了学生的创新精神。
参考文献
[1]赵姝淳.对高校创新性人才培养的思考[J].国家教育行政学院学报，2007（3）：64-67.
[2]王世民.浅议案例教学法[J].辽宁教育行政学院学报， 2006 （6）：91-92.
pbl教学教学案例范文第2篇
笔者在《金融法》课堂教学中采用PBL教学法组织案例讨论，选择一些涉及理论上有争议、社会上有关注或者学生中有困惑的典型案例，通过细致编排内容，精心选择设问，灵活运用于课堂教学中。通过实际操作发现，该方法较好的提高了学生运用法律知识分析问题解决问题的能力，并初步拓展了学生的学术视野和人文关怀。
1. 案例准备
选取适当的案例是成功组织案例教学的关键。一般法学专业本科阶段，《金融法》多在第三学年开设，学生已经修完法学基础课程，有了一定的部门法学习经验。因此，筛选的案例一般要求有深度、有难度，内涵层次丰富，外延真实可信。我们一般依照如下几点进行。
其次，真实性。我国目前仍尚认判例可以作为法的渊源，但我国最高法院对某些具体案件的司法解释与之有类似的作用。所以选取时下发生过的有着鲜明时代特征的案例，有利于学生从书本知识到社会实践的过渡。
再次，争议性。要求案件在大部分学生的知识范畴内，有各抒己见、分析探讨的层次和空间。法律争议在目前我国法制完善过程中仍不同程度的存在。通过对争议的讨论，可以使得学生进一步深入分析，厘清相关法律范畴的界定和判断。
2. 问题设置
这是教师驾驭整个案例教学过程的关键。案例选定后，教师要将其主要情景和事实系统归纳整理，发掘出案例所涉及的知识、理论、观点及最新的理论动向。以此为切入点，将整个案例有机分为几个情景段落。一般地，我们将案例分成案例陈述、实际结案情况及法律理论运用和拓展3个部分。
2～4个主要的讨论问题围绕案例设计，一般放在第一个情景段落案例陈述之后，指向实际结案情况。使学生思考、讨论时有的放矢，不偏离主题。并适当预留几个可以由学生提出问题的点，鼓励学生自己从案例中发现，以期通过增强学生的参与程度，锻炼其发现疑问、提炼观点、设置问题以及分析解决的能力，并在一定程度上逐步锻炼学生在学科上的质疑、探索的精神。
在第二个情景段落，也就是实际结案情况提出后，可设置争议性问题，交由学生分组讨论。针对不同的案例，可选取大组或小组的不同分组方式进行安排。大组讨论，即分为两大组，适用于相对容易区分为正反两种主要观点的问题。小组讨论，即将分为3个以上的小组，适用于有超过两种以上主要观点的问题。分组后给学生1周左右的时间进行准备，一般是查找资料、组内讨论等，最终形成本组观点。
做为第三情景段落的法律理论运用和拓展，重点在于从案例讨论回归法律理论。指导学生深入分析具体法律知识的切入点，深刻领会相关法律理论的应用过程。并努力指引学生向更加深入的层次探索，拓展一定的法律学术思维和视野。
3. 分析讨论
这是整个PBL教学法在《金融法》案例教学过程中最主要的阶段。占用课时相对较长，若教师控制不当，则可能导致“冷场”或者“闹场”等极端情况的出现。只有讨论热烈而有条不紊才能达到教学目的，使学生有所得。我们一般按照学生演讲、课堂讨论和教师点评等环节进行。
在学生演讲中，要求每组选择代表一名表达本组成员的观点，其他成员可以补充，一般要求时间控制在3分钟以内。教师和其他同学可在演讲结束后进行提问。另外，教师可以就发言者本身的讲话过程、表情及动作等进行简短的穿插点评，一方面可以指导学生锻炼当众讲话的能力，另一方面可以营造更好的活跃的课堂氛围，有益于讨论生动、热烈展开。
课堂讨论，一般针对不同的案例或分组方式具体安排。小组讨论中，一般顺接各组学生演讲，而其他组成员则可针对演讲中所表达的观点或提出的问题随时进行反驳、诘问。大组讨论中，可参照一般辩论形式，每组要求至少4名成员代表发言。随后与小组讨论安排大致相同。在此环节，教师要引导学生围绕所提出的问题进行发言，应鼓励学生言之有据地表达自己的观点，可以进行有理有节的辩论。同时，也要掌控讨论的气氛和节奏，始终保持热烈而不激烈的气氛，避免个人攻击等情况出现。指导同学充分发现和运用团队的优势，在各组集体参与下充分交流信息和碰撞思维，引导学生朝着学术素养塑造方向，将讨论达到一定的深度广度。
教师点评，是PBL教学法案例教学的总结阶段。在讨论完成后，学生能收获多少，与此阶段密切相关。教师要对案例的讨论情况进行点评和小结，引导学生从讨论回归书本，从实际回归理论，进一步强化相关法律知识的理解和掌握，为日后学生熟练运用理论解决实际问题打下良好基础，一步步打造学生的知识储备和实践能力。
4. 优势
pbl教学教学案例范文第3篇
基于问题的学习（Problem－Based Learning，简称PBL，也称作问题式学习）教学法是指以问题为基础、学生为中心、教师为引导的小组讨论和学生自学的教学方式。应用到法医临床学教学，PBL教学法可优化为以“案件”为基础、以学生为中心、以教师为引导的教学模式。在法医临床学教学中推行PBL教学法，是提高其教学质量、培养合格法医人才的一个重要手段。
一、PBL教学法在法医临床学教学中的实施过程
经典PBL的实施包含八个步骤［1］：①确定不熟悉的、难以解释的词汇和语句，寻求其他小组能提供的解释。②学生积极提出自己的想法，解释所讨论的问题。③借鉴已有的知识、经验和常识，对问题提出所有可能的解释。④仔细分析所产生的解释。⑤协作小组共同协作形成一系列具体的、可实现的、综合的和恰当的学习目标。⑥学生通过各种资源发现有关学习目标的资源。⑦小组间共享各自的研究成果并融合成综合性的解释。⑧讨论经验。
在法医临床学教学中，具体过程如下：①提出问题：根据教学大纲、教学计划及教学内容，选择具有代表性的案例，针对本次课的重点和难点，设计问题；②针对提出的问题，要求每个学生利用课余时间，通过预习教材、查阅相关文献资料，寻求答案；③小组讨论：以小组为单位进行讨论交流。由授课教师指导，对讨论结果予以肯定；④回顾总结：最后教师对该次教学内容加以归纳，并可对某些学生共同感兴趣的问题作进一步深入讲解，扩展学生知识面。例如，在讲授眼损伤章节时，选择眼损伤典型案例。被鉴定人张某，男，48岁，2010年2月21日与他人发生纠纷，被对方用拳头击伤左眼部。2010年2月21日某医院住院病历记载：因“头面部、背部被殴击伤疼痛，左眼视物不清1小时”入院。体检：神清，精神可，生命体征平稳，一般情况可。头颈部、胸腹部、四肢、脊柱无异常，肾区无叩击痛。专科情况：视力右眼0.5，左眼手动/30cm，红绿光可见。左眼睑肿胀，皮下瘀血，球结膜下广泛性出血，角膜透明，前房水清，正常深浅，瞳孔圆，反射存在，晶状体透明，玻璃体混浊，下方可见团块状黑影。眼底模糊，视不清，眼压Tn。右瞳孔等大等圆约3mm大小，光敏，鼻部肿胀。CT扫描示：左眼眶软组织挫伤，双侧眼球未见明显异常。初步诊断：左眼玻璃体积血；左眼视网膜震荡伤。入院后给予扩血管，促进玻璃体积血吸收等治疗。出院时患者仍诉左眼视物不清，查左眼视力0.04，不能矫正，球结膜无充血，角膜透明，前房正常，瞳孔圆，光反射存在，晶体透明，玻璃体较混，无积血，眼底视网膜无出血，视无水肿，境界清，黄斑中心反光不清。鉴定事项：对张某进行损伤程度鉴定。法医检验：2010年9月18日活体检查：一般情况好。眼科专科检查：右眼视力1.0，左眼0.1（矫正不能提高）。角膜（－），晶体周边部微混，玻璃体（－），左眼眼底黄斑中心凹反光欠清，视网膜平伏，未见出血和水肿。眼压：左眼17mmHg，右眼16mmHg。视觉电生理检查报告提示：左眼视网膜功能降低；左眼视路功能降低。眼底造影：左眼可见荧光渗漏。
在完整的资料显示完后，提出问题：①能认定张某的哪些损伤？②主观检查法得出的张某左眼视力障碍有无损伤的基础？③张某左眼视力降低与外伤之间有无因果关系？④张某的损伤程度如何判定？⑤何为视网膜挫伤，与视网膜震荡如何鉴别？然后我们推荐或提供部分相关文献、资料，要求学生查找资料并学习和利用资料，针对上述问题展开充分讨论。在与同学互动讨论的过程中，教师要引导学生回顾损伤程度鉴定原则，损伤因果关系判定的方法，伪装视力低下的鉴别方法等。要求学生以法医鉴定人的角色对此案进行鉴定，启发学生通过对案件资料的全面分析，认定张某的损伤为左眼视网膜挫伤，损伤程度为轻伤。通过以此案例为基础的讨论式学习，将知识点融汇于案例中，不但形象生动地学习了眼损伤的相关知识，而且培养了学生提出问题、分析问题和解决问题的能力，使理论知识和法医学实践有机的结合起来，在理论学习中提高法医学实际检案能力，收到了良好的教学效果。
二、效果及体会
笔者认为PBL教学法具有以下优点：①有利于激发学生学习兴趣，发挥学生学习的主动性，提升学生的自学能力；②有利于学生理解新知识，巩固旧知识。教师在设计问题时，将各基础及临床相关学科知识融入问题中，使学生在理解新知识的同时，又巩固了原有知识；③有利于培养学生的综合素质和能力。［2］传统的教学方法，学生长期习惯被动接受教师传授的知识，不利于综合素质的培养。而PBL教学，学生以问题为中心进行自学，这样就可以通过预习材料、文献检索、资料归纳和分析、观点提炼以及人际交往来提高资料收集、人际沟通以及分析问题和解决问题的能力，可以通过讨论来提高逻辑思维能力，可以通过课堂阐述、相互点评来提高语言表达能力。同时在教学中发现了一些问题与不足：①个别学生有消极参与的情绪，依赖教师课后总结而不积极参与讨论，或仅抓住表面现象而忽视对问题的深入思考；②资料信息收集简单。有的学生为了快速完成任务，不进行认真仔细收集；③花费时间太多。［3］
综上所述，通过以案例分析为基础的教学，在教学中模拟法医的实际工作，提出问题，解决问题，寓理论知识于实际案例中，能够调动学生的学习主动性，挖掘他们的学习潜能，培养他们分析问题、解决问题以及案件分析能力，促进学生综合素质的提高，从而真正达到提升法医临床教学质量的目的。所以，案例教学法是理论联系实际，提高学生专业素质的一个好的教学方法，［4］也是一个值得广泛推广的教学方法。
参考文献
1 Yiou R, Goaenogh D. Applying Problem―based learning to the teaching of anatomy：the example of Harvard Medical School［J］. Surg Radiol Anat，2006（2）：189
2 王 荃、李自良、刘 彦.口腔颌面外科学PBL教学实践与研究［J］.吉林医学，2010（24）：4223～4224
pbl教学教学案例范文第4篇
本文共分五个部分，第一部分和第五部分分别为介绍与总结，中间三个部分为本文核心，分别展开广告英语在词汇﹑句法﹑篇章三个层面的分析。本文的结论均来自于对语料库的分析。整个研究从数据出发，由数据驱动，由此进行语言学上的分析与概括。
本文作者衷心希望此论文的分析结果能给英语广告的写作者以及广告英语的学习者提供帮助。
关键词:广告英语，词汇，句法，篇章，相同点，不同点
ANANALYSISOFLANGUAGEFEATURESINENGLISHADVERTISEMENTS
Abstract
ThispaperpresentsananalyticalstudyofthelanguagefeaturesofEnglishadvertisementsatlexical,syntacticanddiscourselevels.Inordertoconductadata-drivenstudy,theauthorbuildsacorpusof60Englishadvertisements.Itishopedthatthroughthedetailedsurveyofthreetypesofadvertisements:namely,dailyconsumergoodsads,technicalequipmentads,serviceads,similaritiesanddifferencesinadvertisinglanguagefeaturescanbesummarizedandpossiblereasonswillbegiveninthelightofthemeaning,andfunctionoflanguage.
Thispaperwillbepresentedinfiveparts.Thefirstpartistheintroductionandthelastconclusion.Thefocusofthepaperislaidonthethreemiddlepartswhichrespectivelyanalyzelanguagefeaturesatlexical,syntacticanddiscourselevels.Theconclusionofthispaperisdrawnfromthedataanalysis.Intheanalysis,examplesfromthecorpuswillbegiven;figures,tablesandgraphswillalsobeofferedtomakethepaperunderstandableandpersuasive.
ItishopedthatthestudycanshedlightonthelanguagefeaturesofadvertisementsandalsoprovidehelptocopywritersandadvertisingEnglishlearners.
KEYWORDS:EnglishAdvertisements,Lexical,Syntactic,Discourse,
Similarities,Differences
Contents
1.Introduction………………………………………………………………1
1.1Rationaleofthestudy……………………………………………………...1
1.2Definitionofadvertising…………………………………………………...1
1.3Focusofthepresentstudy…………………………………………………1
1.4Sourcesofdata…………………………………………………………….2
2.Lexicalfeatures……………………………………………………………2
2.1Classificationofadvertisinganditsaudience……………………………..2
2.2Similaritiesatthelexicallevel…………………………………………….3
2.2.1Fewverbsareused………………………………………………………...3
2.2.2Useofemotivewords……………………………………………………..4
2.2.3Makepunandalliteration………………………………………………….4
2.2.4Useofweaselwords……………………………………………………….5
2.3Differencesatthelexicallevel…………………………………………….6
2.3.1Genderidentityinadvertisements………………………………………….6
2.3.2SelectionofAdjectives……………………………………………………7
2.3.3Compoundwords………………………………………………………….8
2.3.4Useofpronouns……………………………………………………………8
3.Syntacticalfeatures………………………………………………………9
3.1Similarities…………………………………………………………………9
3.2Differences…………………………………………………………………10
3.2.1Headlines…………………………………………………………………..10
3.2.2Comparisonofheadlinesofdifferenttypesofads………………………...11
4.Discoursefeatures...………………………………………………………..12
4.1Bodycopyofadvertisements……………………………………………...12
4.2Differencesinbodycopy…………………………………………….12
5.Conclusion…………………………………………………………………14
Acknowledgement
SincerethanksgotoDr.WeiNaixingforhisinsightfulguidanceandearnesthelpallthroughthesearching,analysisandpaper-writingstages.
TheauthoralsowantstoextendherthankstoMs.LindaFrostwhohasgivenmuchhelpindatacollecting.
[1]Bolinger,Dwight&Sears,DonaldA.AspectsofLanguagethirdedition
NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich1981
[2]Bovee,CourtlandL.&Arens,WilliamF.ContemporaryAdvertisingforthedition
Homewood,IL:Irwin1992
[3]Gove,PhilipBabcockWebster’sThirdNewInternationalDictionary
Springfield,Mass.:G.&C.MerriamCo.1976
[4]Gregory,MichaelLanguageVarietiesandTheirSocialContexts
London:Routledge&KeganPaulLtd.1981
[5]Jefkins,FrankWilliamAdvertisingPhiladelphia,PA:MacdonaldandEvans1985
[6]O’Donnell,W.R.&Todd,LoretoVarietyinContemporaryEnglish
London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin(Publishers)Ltd.1985
[7]Roberts,WilliamH.&Turgeon,GregoireAboutLanguagesecondediton
Boston:HoughtonMifflinCo.1989
[8]Vestergaard,Torben&Schrder,KimThelanguageofAdvertising
Oxford[Oxfordshire];NewYork,NY,USA:B.Blackwell1985
[9]方薇《现代英语广告教程》南京大学出版社1997
[10]崔刚，韩宝成，李营，《广告英语》北京理工大学出版社1993
1.Introduction
1.1Rationaleofthestudy
Weliveinaworldofadvertising.Aspotentialconsumers,weareendlesslybombardedwithallkindsofproductorserviceinformationfromvariousmediaincludingnewspapers,magazines,television,radio,postersandInternet,etc.Advertisingprovidesavaluableservicetosocietyanditsmembers,becauseitdefinesforconsumersthemeaningandtheroleofproducts,services,andinstitutions.Itindicatesthedifferencethatexistsbetweenbrandsofproductsandalternativeservices,aswellasthedistinguishingcharacteristicsofcompaniesandinstitutions.Advertisingalsotellstheconsumerwhataspecificproduct,brandorserviceshoulddowhenitisusedandthushelpshimorhertounderstandandevaluateexperiencewiththeproductsandservicesthatheorsheuses.Ontheotherhand,bymakingpeopleawareofproducts,serviceandideas,advertisingpromotessalesandprofits.Finally,binedwithallthesecommunicational,marketingandsocialfunctions.Advertisingbecomesindispensableinthemodernworld.
Naturally,advertisementsinEnglishhavebecomeanimportantmeansofcommunicatingideas,demonstratingavarietyoflinguisticfeaturesofitsown.Thepresentstudyattemptstoexaminethesefeaturesatthelexical,syntacticanddiscourselevels,inthehopeofbringingthemtolightand,thereby,offeringhelptoadvertisementwritersandlanguagelearners.
1.2Definitionofadvertising
AccordingtotheDefinitionCommitteeofAmericanMarketingAssociation(方薇,1997:2)
,advertisingisdefinedasfollows:
Advertisingisthenonpersonalcommunicationofinformationusuallypaidforandusuallypersuasiveinnatureaboutproducts,servicesorideasbyidentifiedsponsorsthroughthevariousmedia.
1.3Focusofthepresentstudy
Usually,advertisingcommunicatesinformationinthreetypes:audio,visual,andlanguage.Itisamorecommoncasethatanadvertisementisamixtureofthethree.Inradioadvertisements,musicisalwaysaccompaniedbylanguage;onTVandmotionpictures,musicandlanguageillustrationaremixedwitheachother.Inmagazinesandnewspapers,advertisementsareacombinationofpicturesandlanguageofwritteninformation.Althoughmusicandpicturescanprovidesomehints,orcreateakindofatmosphere,theinformationabouttheproductislimited.Evenworse,itmayleadtomisunderstanding.Thus,wemaysaythatlanguageinawayprovidesmoreexact,detailedanddependableinformationwhereasmusicandpicturesonlyactasasupplementarymeansinadvertising.Advertisinglanguage,playingaroleofcommunicationandpersuasion,hasdevelopeditsownfeatures.
ThispaperwillfocusonthelanguagefeaturesofEnglishadvertisementsatlexical,syntacticanddiscourselevels.Itishoped,byacontrastivestudyofadvertisementsonthreetypesofproducts(dailyconsumergoods,technicalequipmentandservice),similaritiesanddifferencesofthethreetypesofadvertisementswillbesummarizedandpossiblereasonswillbegiveninthelightofthemeaning,andfunctionoflanguage.
1.4Sourcesofdata
AlltheadvertisementsstudiedinthispaperaretakenfromEnglishmagazines.TheyarechosenfromTime,PeopleandNewsweek(issuesfrom1999-2000),becausethesethreemagazineshaveahugecirculation,coveringallkindsofaudience.Almostallkindsofadvertisementscanbefoundinthesemagazines.Inordertogetvaluableinformationforthestudy,acorpusof60advertisementswasbuilt,whichconsistsof20dailyconsumergoodsads,20technicalequipmentads,and20serviceads.Conclusionswillbedrawnthroughquantitativeandqualitativestudiesofthedata.
2LexicalFeatures
2.1Classificationofadvertisinganditsaudience
Generallyspeaking,advertisementscanbedividedintotwotypes:publicrelationadsandcommercialads.Theformertriestoadvocatereputationforasocialgroup,mercialadsaremuchmorepresentedthroughmassmediaforthereasonthatmanufacturersandcompaniesarewillingtospendalargesumofmoneytomakeacertainproductknownortoboosttheimageofacertainbrand.Insomecases,competitors,likeCoca-colaandPerpsi,mercialadvertisingcanalsobedividedaccordingtothetargetaudienceintotwogroups:consumeradvertisingandbusinessadvertising.Mostoftheadsinthemassmediaareconsumeradvertisements.Theyaretypicallydirectedatconsumers.Bycontrast,businessadvertisingtendstobeconcentratedinspecializedbusinesspublications,professionaljournals,tradeshowstargetingatacertaingroupofpeopleinvolvedinsomebusiness.Sinceconsumeradvertisingismostaccessibletocommonpeople,thepresentstudyonwillfocusonconsumeradvertising.Theclassificationofadvertisingisclearlyshowninthefollowinggraph
Graph1Classificationofadvertisements
PublicadsDailyconsumergoodsads
AdvertisingConsumeradsTechnicalequipmentads
Commercialads
BusinessadsServiceads
Theboldpartsshowthescopeofadvertisementswestudy.Dailyconsumergoodsarenecessitiesofdailylife,suchasfood,detergent,hygiene,etc.Technicalequipmentistechnicaltoysandelectricequipmentsuchascamera,vehicle,hi-fi,etc.Servicecoversbank,insurance,fund,etc.
Actually,advertisingworkseffectivelysomeofthetimeanddoesn’tworkothertimes.Thesinglecrucialreasonthatadvertisingdoesnotworkisthatinspecificinstancestheinformationitconveysneverreachestheconsumeratall,orisjudgedbytheconsumertobeeitherredundant,meaningless,orirrelevant.Forexample,amotorbikeadvertisementwillprobablybeinvisibletohousewivesonthelookoutfornewcutlery.Socialstatusandindividualinterestdecidethatconsumergoodsadsaremainlytargetingatwomenwhiletechnicalequipmentadsarelargelyaimingatmen.Theamountofsharedknowledgebetweentheadvertiserandtheaudiencetogetherwiththethinkinghabitoftheaudiencedirectlyinfluencestheadvertisinglanguage.Sinceproductsandaudiencechangeineveryadvertisementinordertoachievehighadvertisingeffectiveness,languageuseddiffersindifferenttypesofadvertisements.Thus,inthispaperwediscussnotonlythesimilaritiesoflanguagesharedbyalltypesofadvertisementsbutalsodifferencesoflanguageusedindifferentkindsofadvertisements.
2.2Similaritiesatthelexicallevel
Inordertomaketheinformationaccessibletoaudienceeffectively,thechoiceofwordsinadvertisingisverycautiousandskillful.Theaimoftheadvertiserisquitespecific.Hewishestocapturetheattentionofthemembersofamassaudienceandbymeansofimpressivewordstopersuadethemtobuyaproductorbehaveinaparticularway,suchasgoingtoHawaiiforalltheirholidayneeds.Bothlinguisticandpsychologicalaspectsaretakenintoconsiderationinthechoiceofwords.Sharingthesamepurposeofadvertising－tofamiliarizeorremindconsumersofthebenefitsofparticularproductsinthehopeofincreasingsales,thetechniquesusedatthelexicallevelbyadvertisersdonotvarymarkedly.Thefollowingpointsaresomeprominentsimilarities.
2.2.1Fewverbsareused
G.N.Leech,Englishlinguist,lists20mostusedverbsinhisEnglishInAdvertising:LinguisticstudyofAdvertisingInGreatBritain(方薇,1997:20).Theyare:make,get,give,have,see,buy,come,go,know,keep,look,need,love,use,feel,like,choose,take,start,taste.
Alltheseverbslistedabovearealsopopularinthecorpuswebuilt.
Youwilloftenreadsuchsentencesinanadvertisement:
Buyx.Useit.Wemake…Xwillgiveyouwhatyouneed.You’lllovex.Getx.Foxexample:
We’llmakethisquick.(HertzCarReturn)
Getgreatcoveragethat’ssoweightlessandwater-fresh.(ALMAY)
Allyouneedisatasteforadventure.(MillstoneCoffee)
You’llloveitevenmorewiththe2.1megapixelC-2000ZOOM.(OlympusCamera)
Don’thavemuchofapersonality?Buyone.(HondaMotor)
…
AllthesefrequentlyusedverbsaremonosyllabicandmostofthemhaveAnglo-SaxonoriginthatisthecommoncoreofEnglishvocabulary.LinguisticstudyshowsEnglishnativespeakerstendtousewordsofAnglo-Saxonorigin,becausenativewordshavecomparablystablemeaning.Inadvertising,thesesimplewordscanwintheconsumersbytheirexact,effectiveexpressionandakindofcloseness.Etymologicalstudiesshowthatthe20verbslistedbefore,exceptuseandtastewhicharefromancientFrench,allareAnglo-Saxonorigin.Eventhetwowords,useandtastehavelongbecomeindispensablelexicalitemsinthestockofcommoncorevocabularyoftheEnglishpeople,developingtheirstablemeaningandusage.
2.2.2Useofemotivewords
Aclosescrutinyofrecentadvertisementssuggeststhatthesoft-selltechniqueisnowpopular.Bysoft-selltechniquewemeantheonethatfavorsamoreemotiveandlessdirectiveapproachtopromoteaproduct,mainlyfocusingonthebuildingofbrandimage.Asaresult,emotivewords,mostofwhicharepleasantadjectives,aregreatlyencouragedtouse.
Datafromthecorpusshowsthatthemostfrequentlyusedadjectivesareasfollows:
new,good/better/best,fresh,free,delicious,sure,full,clean,wonderful,special,crisp,real,fine,great,safe,andrich.
Theseadjectiveshelptobuildapleasantpictureinreaders’mindsandmanagetocreateabeliefinthepotentialconsumer:IfIbuythisproductorifIchoosethisservice,Iwillleadabetterlife.Inaddition,comparativesandsuperlativesoccurtohighlighttheadvantageofacertainproductorservice.Forexample:
Nothingcomesclosertohome.(VegetableandChickenPastaBake)
ThinkLysolisthebestdisinfectingspray.(DisinfectingSpray)
Theworld’scoolestCDsaren’tmadeinNewYork,LondonorL.A.Theyaremadeinmyapartment.(PhilipsCDRecorder)
TheCompaqArmadafamilyislighter,withnewroundededgesforeasierpacking.(Compaq)
…
2.2.3Makepunandalliteration
PunisanamusinguseofawordorphrasethathastwomeaningswhichiscalledPolysemyorofwordswiththesamesoundbutdifferentmeaningswhichiscalledHomonymy.Pun,thegameofwords,willleaveadeepimpressiononreadersbyitsreadability,wit,andhumor.However,tomakeasuccessfulandimpressivepunisnoteasy.Exceptforitsownmeaning,thewordusedasapunisusuallycloselyrelatedtothecharacteristicsofacertainproductorthebrandnameoftheproduct.Suchcoincidencedoesn’toccuroften.Herewepresentseveralclassicpun-usedadvertisements.Forexample:
Giveyourhairatouchofspring.
Askformore.(Moreisafamousbrandofcigarette)
Giveyourbusinessthesharpedge.(SharpCorporation)
…
Byusingpun,advertisementswillbeeasilyrememberedbythereaders.Inaddition,filledwithwitandhumor,punshelptheadvertisedproductwinfavorfromreaders.
Alliterationistheuseofwordsthatbeginwiththesamesoundinordertomakeaspecialcommunicativeeffect.Usuallytheyarepleasingtoearsbecauseofthecleverchoiceofthewordbytheadvertiser.Inaddition,therepetitionofthebeginningsoundemphasizesthemeaningtheadvertisementwantstoexpress.Thefollowingareexamplespickedfromthecorpus.
…,everythingyouneedforthatbigbargainbasementspecial.
…,andvitaminEtoleaveskinsoftandsmooth.
Treatyourwearyghostsandgoblinstoawarmbowlofchilland…
…
2.2.4Useofweaselwords
Aweaselwordisdefinedas“awordusedinordertoevadeorretreatfromadirectorforthrightstatementorposition”accordingtoWebsterDictionary(PhilipBabcockGove,1976).Theuseofweaselwordshasbecomeadeviceinadvertising.Weaselwordsmakepeoplehearthingsthataren’tbeingsaid,acceptastruththathaveonlybeenimplied,andbelievethingsthathaveonlybeenimpliedandsuggested.Let’stakealookunderastronglightatseveralfrequentlyusedwords.
Help
OceanSprayCranberryJuiceCocktailhelpsmaintainurinarytracthealth.
Ithelpscontrolthebacteriainthissystem.
Abreakthroughwaytohelpstopwear-out
Helpfinancethevideoequipment.
…
Alltheexamplesshownarefromourcorpus.23%advertisementsofallsamplesusethewordhelp.Thesehelpscanbeomittedbecausetheyhavelosttheiroriginalmeaning:aid,assist.Yet,helpinadvertisingEnglishisneverredundant.Ithasmagicpowerinadvertisers’eyes.
Helpisthegreatqualifier;oncetheadvertisersaysit,hecansayanythingafterit.Helpqualifieseverything.Theaudiencehasneverheardanyonesay,“Thisproductwillkeepyouyoung,”or“Thistoothpastewillpositivelypreventcavitiesforalltime.”Obviously,advertiserscan’tsayanythinglikethat,becausetherearenotanyproductslikethatmade.Butbyaddingthatonelittlewordhelp,infront,theycanusethestrongestlanguagepossibleafterwards.Andthemostfascinatingpartofitisthatthereadersareimmunetotheword.Thereadersliterallydon’thearthewordhelp.Theyonlyknewwhatcomesafterit.Thatisstronglanguage,andlikelytobemuchmoreimportanttothereadersthanthelittlewordatthefront.
Like
It’slikegettingonbarfree.
Cleanslikeawhitetornado.
It’sliketakingatriptoPortugal.
…
Likeisalsoaqualifier,andisusedinmuchthesamewayashelp.Butlikeisalsoacomparativeelement,withaveryspecificpurpose;advertisersuseliketogettheaudiencetostopthinkingaboutsomethingthatisbiggerthanorbetterordifferentfromtheproductwhicharebeingsold.Inotherwords,theycanmaketheaudiencebelievethattheproductismorethanitisbylikeningittosomethingelse.Likehelp,likedoesn’tcatchmuchattention.Howeverbyusingit,almostanythingcanbesaidandpromisedafterwards.
2.3Differencesatthelexicallevel
2.3.1Genderidentityinadvertisements
Whilewefoundquitealotofsimilaritiesinthechoiceofwords,wehavealsofoundsomedelicatedifferencesinthechoiceofwordsinthethreetypesofadvertisementsasclassifiedbefore:dailyconsumergoodsads,technicalequipmentads,andserviceads.
Language,asacommunicativetool,isnotonlytoimpartinformation,tocommunicateideasaboutaproduct,etc.,butalsotoconveyinformationabouttherelationshipbetweentheaddresser(advertisement)andtheaddressee(theaudience).Anintimaterelationshipbetweentheadvertisementandtheaudienceisalwayshopedtoachieve.Soaccordingtodifferentaudience,languageappliedisdifferent.
Whatconstitutesafemaleandamaleidentity,accordingtoadvertising?Table1,basedonthelanguageofadvertising(TorbenVestergaard&KimSchrder,1981:74),givesthecommodityprofileoftwogender-identifiedmagazines:WomenandPlayboyandalsoprovidesthedistributionofthedifferenttypesofadvertisements.
Table1Distributionofthreetypesofadvertisements
Percentageofads
Women(%)Playboy(%)
Daily
Consumer
Goods
Hygiene103
Beauty181
Clothes1214
Food,Detergents31-
Tobacco815
Beer,Spirits-25
Leisure-3
Technical
Equipment
Vehicle-27
Radio,hi-fi-4
Computer-7
ServiceInsurance,banking2-
Others191
Itcanbeseenfromtable1thatthehygiene,beauty,foodanddetergentsadsaredominantinthewomen’smagazineswhiletechnicalequipmentadsprevailinmen’smagazines.Thereasonisthatwomenarepotentialpurchasersofdailyconsumergoodswhilemenarepotentialpurchasersoftechnicalequipment.Soadvertisinglanguagetriestowinitsaudiencesbynoticingaudiences’genderidentity.
Inaddition,sincethesubjectsinvolvedinadvertisementsvaryfromsimpletocomplex,sharedknowledgebytheaddresser(ads)andaddressee(theaudience)varies.Forexample,knowledgeoftechnicalequipment,sometimesdemandshigheducationalbackgroundorspecialinterestsinacertainfield.Toconveydifferentknowledgeclearly,advertisementsdon’talwaysspeakinthesameway.Inthefollowingsection,wewillmakeacomparativestudyofthreepointsinordertofinddifferencesinthechoiceofwordsinthreetypesofadvertisements:theselectionofadjectives,theuseofcompoundwordsandtheuseofpronouns.
2.3.2Selectionofadjectives
Adjectives,asemotiveandexcitingwords,areusedtoenhancethefactsofacertainproductorservice.Inthestudyoftheselectionofadjectives,wehavefirstdividedadjectivesintotwogroups:descriptiveadjectivesandevaluativeadjectives.Theformerisusedinobjectivedescriptionandthelattergivetheadvertiser’ssubjectivecomments.Thenwehavelistedthosefrequentlyuseddescriptiveadjectivesandevaluativeadjectivesindailyconsumergoodsadsandtechnicalequipmentads,andwesurprisinglyhavediscovereddescriptiveadjectivesdifferfromeachotherintwokindsofadvertisements.
Table2Comparisonoffrequently-usedadjectives
indailyconsumergoodsadsandtechnicalequipmentads
DescriptiveadjectivesEvaluativeadjectives
Daily
Consumer
Goods
Ads
radiant,shiny,dazzling,gold
soft,smooth
fresh
creamy,crispy
clean
easy,convenient
rich,effective,crucial
healthy,fast
valuable,flew
essential
good/better/best
magic
Technical
Equipment
Ads
audible,visible
high-volume,full-colour,
high-speed
magnetic,sharp
invisible,multiple
flexible,versatile
Table2showsthatdescriptiveadjectivesindailyconsumergoodsadssuchasfresh,crispy,andsoft,tendtoconveythesenseofsight,touch,andtaste.Thetemptationarousedbythisvividdescriptionofaproductishardtoresistespeciallyforwomenwhotendtobemovedbypleasantsenses;comparedwithmen,womenareinclinedtothinkintermsofimagesandperceivethroughsenses.However,men,thetargetaudienceoftechnicalequipment,aregoodatrationalthinking.Menarenotcontrolledbysenses.Onthecontrary,theproduct’sinteriorqualityandfunctioniswhattheypayattentionto.Sothedescriptiveadjectivesusedintechnicalequipmentadsaretheonesconveyinginformationoftheproduct,suchas
audible,visible,high-volume,high-speed,etc.
2.3.3Compoundwords
poundadjectivesareoftenseeninadvertisements.Inthepresentstudy,wefoundcompoundwordsturnupwithvaryingproportionsinthreetypesofadvertisements.
Compound-
usedAds
Total
Ads
Percentage
DailyConsumerGoods52025%
TechnicalEquipment132065%
Service72035%
Obviously,compoundwordsturnupin65%technicalequipmentads,40percentagepointshigherthanthatofdailyconsumergoodsads;30percentagepointshigherthanserviceads.
Compoundwordsintechnicalequipmentads,areusuallycombinedtogiveanexactdescriptionofacertainfeatureoracertainfunctionsuchashigh-volume,full-color,multi-functional,non-stop,water-cooled.Oftennumbersareemployedinfrontofthehyphen,whichisseldomseeninotheradvertisements,suchas64-bit,24-valve,4-wheel,255-horsepower.
Thisdifferencecanbeaccountedforintermsofthedifferentcomplexitiesofthegoods.Incomparisonwithdailyconsumergoodsandservices,technicalequipmentismuchmorecomplicatedinfunctionandstructure.Itisjusttheadvantageousfunctionornewlydesignedstructurethattheadvertiserwantstohighlightintechnicalequipmentads.Thus,theadvertiseremploys,evencoins,somanycompoundwordsthattheycanmaketheintroductionofcomplicatedtechnicalequipmentbriefandprecise.Grammatically,compoundwordshelptoavoidusingclause,whichenhancethereadabilityofadvertisements.
2.3.4Useofpronouns
Pronounsofthefirstandsecondperson:we,Iandyououtnumbertheotherpronounsinadvertisements.Itisbecausethatyou,weandIhelpcreateafriend-likeintimateatmospheretomoveandpersuadetheaudience.Advertisementswithlotsofpronounsofthefirstandsecondpersonarecalledgossipadvertisements.Here,gossiphasnottheleastderogativemeaning.ItoriginatesfromoldEnglishgodsib,meaningfriendlychatsbetweenwomen.Advertisementsthatgoliketalkingwithfriendscloselylinktheadvertisementandtheaudience.Theaudiencewilleasilyacceptaproduct,aserviceoranideaasifagoodfriendrecommendedthem.
Thoughpronounsofthefirstandsecondpersonarepopularinadvertisements,therearesomedifferencesintheuseofthesepronounsinthethreekindsofadvertisements.Thefirstpersonwealmostneveroccursindailyconsumergoodsadsandtechnicalequipmentads,whereasweisusedinalmost80%theserviceadsinthecorpus.Thefollowingaresomeexamples.
Whatcanwedoforyou?
SocomeonandjoinusaswecelebrateMillenniaManiaSingapore.
…,wehelpourneighborsfindthebestwaystogivetotheirfavoritecharities
We’restrongerthanever.
…
Therearetwofactorstoexplainthephenomenon.First,indailyconsumergoodsadsandtechnicalequipmentads,aproductisthefocusofinformation.Whentheproductneedstobementioned,“it”isused,andinmostcases,thebrandnameisused,evenrepeatedtoimpressthereaders.However,inserviceads,serviceisactuallytheproduct.Sinceserviceisintangible
wecanberegardedasthereplacementoftheservice.Second,itismorenecessaryforserviceadstocreateafriend-likeatmosphere,becausewinningtrustisthefirstthingserviceadswanttodo.
3.Syntacticalfeatures
3.1Similarities
Thepurposeofalladvertisingistofamiliarizeconsumerswithorremindthemofthebenefitsofparticularproductsinthehopeofincreasingsales,andthetechniquesusedbyadvertisersdonotvarymarkedly.Anadvertisementisoftenmerelyglimpsedinpassingandso,tobeeffective,itsmessagemustbecolorful,legible,understandableandmemorable.Therulesgoverningthelanguageofadvertisingaresimilar.WehavesummarizedthelexicalfeaturesofEnglishadvertisements.Ifwordsareleavesofatree,andsentencesbranches;thebranchesmustalsopossesstheirsimilarities.
First,lengthofasentenceinadvertisingisusuallyshort.Asentenceindailyconsumergoodsadshas10.3wordsonaverage;intechnicalequipmentads,11.8words;inserviceads,12.3words.
Second,astosentencestructure,paredwithcomplexsentences,simplesentencesaremoreunderstandableandforceful.Ellipticalsentencesareactuallyincompleteinstructurebutcompleteinmeaning.Theadoptionofellipticalsentencescansparemoreprintspace,andtakelesstimeforreaderstofinishreading.Inaddition,agroupofsentencefragmentsmaygainspecialadvertisingeffectiveness.Letuscomparethefollowingtwoadvertisements.
a.Baked.Drenched.Testedtotheextreme.AMotorolacellularphone…
b.TheMotorolacellularphonearebakedanddrenchedtoextreme.
Obviously,byusingellipticalstructure,sentenceaisfarmorebrief,eye-catchingandforcefulthansentenceb.What’smore,itconveysattitudesthatsentenceblacks.Sentenceaimpliesakindofappreciationforthephone,bysplittingthesentenceintoseveralfragmentsandrearrangingitswordorder.Thereforeskillfularrangementofellipticalsentencesmayaddcolortoasentence.
Third,astosentencepatterns,interrogativesentencesandimperativesentencesareheavilyusedinEnglishadvertisements.Imperativesentencesareshort,encouragingandforceful.Theyareusedtoarouseaudiences’wantsorencouragethemtobuysomething.Forinstance:
Entersomethingmagical.(Oldsmobile)
Feelthecleanallday.(ALMAY)
Byeone.(Hondamotor)
…
Intheexplanationofthehighfrequencyoftheuseofinterrogativesentences,LinguistG.N.Leech(方薇,1997:77)discussestwomainfunctionsofinterrogativesentences.Viewingfromtheangleofpsychology,interrogativesentencesdividedtheprocessofinformationreceivingintotwophasesbyfirstraisingaquestionandthenansweringit.Thusitturnsthepassivereceivingintoactiveunderstanding.Fromthelinguisticangle,interrogativesentencesdecreasethegrammaticaldifficulty,becausetheyareusuallyshortinadvertisements.Takethefollowinginterrogativesentenceasanexample:ifitisaskedtocondensetoonesentence,thecondensedonewillbecomplexanddull.
What’sinWoman’sRealmthisweek?Awonderfulbeautyoffersforyou.
There’sawonderfulbeautyofferforyouinWomen’sRealmthisweek.
Fourth,thepassivevoiceisusuallyavoidedbecausethepassivevoicegivestheaudienceanindirectandunnaturalfeeling.Indailycommunication,passivevoiceisseldomused;soisinadvertisements.Presenttenseprevailsinmostadvertisementsbecausepresenttenseimpliesauniversaltimelessness.Ontherareoccasionswherethepasttenseandthepresentperfecttenseisused,itstressesthelongtraditionsassociatedwithaproduct,suchas“We’vetakenourwhiskyinmanyways,butalwaysseriously”;oremphasizesitsreliability,suchas“We’vesolvedalong-standingproblem,”;ormakesanappealtoauthority,suchas“Eightoutoftenownerssaidtheircatspreferredit.”
3.2Differences
3.2.1Headline
ThetermHeadlinereferstothesentencesintheleadingpositionoftheadvertisement—thewordsthatwillbereadfirstorthatarepositionedtodrawthemostattention.Therefore,headlinesareusuallysetinlargertypethanotherportionsoftheadvertisement.Research(CoutlandL.Bovee&WilliamF.Arens,1992:294)hasshownthat,onaverage,threetofivetimesasmanypeoplereadtheheadlineasreadthebodycopy.Therefore,iftheadvertiserhasn’tdonesomesellingintheheadline,hehaswastedthegreatestpercentofhismoney.Soitmightbesuggestedthatadvertisersshouldnotbeafraidoflongheadlines.
Aheadlinehasnumerousfunctions.Firstofall,theheadlinemustattractattentiontotheadvertisementfast.Itshouldtakeonlyafewsecondstocapturethereader’sattention.Otherwise,theentiremessagemaybelost.Aheadlinealsoselectsthereader,thatis,ittellswhethertheadvertisement’ssubjectmatterintereststhereader.Theideaistoengageandinvolvethereader,suggestingareasontoreadtherestoftheadvertisement.Therefore,theheadlineisthemostimportantinanadvertisement.
Generally,wecanclassifyeffectiveadvertisingheadlinesintofivebasiccategories:benefitheadline,provocativeheadline,news/informationheadline,questionheadline,andcommandheadline.
Benefitheadlinesmakeadirectpromisetothereader.News/informationheadlinesincludemanyofthehow-toheadlinesandheadlinesthatseektogainidentificationfortheirsponsorsbyannouncingsomenewsorprovidingsomepromiseofinformation.Provocativeheadlinesareusedtoprovokethereader’scuriosity.Tolearnmore,thereadermustreadthebodycopy.Aquestionheadlinewillpiquethereader’scuriosityandimaginationbyaskingaquestionthatthereaderisinterestedin.Acommandheadlineordersthereadertodosomething.Itmotivatesthereaderthroughfearoremotionorbecausethereaderunderstandstheinherentcorrectnessofthecommand
3.2.2Comparisonofheadlinesofdifferenttypesofadvertisements
Table4tellswhichtypeofheadlineismostusedinacertaintypeofadvertisements.
Table4Comparisonofheadlinesinthreetypesofadvertisements
Benefit
Headline
News/Infor
headline
Provocative
Headline
Question
Headline
Command
Headline
Daily
Consumer
Goods
15%
25%
15%
40%
5%
Technical
Equipment
10%
30%
30%
25%
5%
Service
35%
10%
40%
10%
5%
Whyquestionheadlinesaremorefrequentlyusedindailyconsumergoodsads?AmericansociolinguistDanielN.Maltz(方薇,1997:144)concludedthroughstudythatwomentendtoaskquestions.Theyhaveubiquitouscuriosity.Sothewomen-targetingads,dailyconsumergoodsads,cleverlyemployquestionheadlinestocatertowomen’scuriosity.Thequestioncanbewhatwomencare,suchas“Whichofthesecontinentalquiltpatternswillsuityourbedroombest?”;orwhatwomenseldomthinkof,suchas“Heartheoneaboutthecomedianwhoneverdrankmilk?”.Nomatterwhatkindofquestion,itwillarousewomen’sinteresteffectively.
Accordingtothecomparison,informationheadlinesaremostpopularintechnicalequipmentadvertisements.Forexample:
Here’sthefilmlessversion.
It’saboutexchanginginformationeasilywithpeopleyoutrust.
ThemuscularV6givestheGrandVitaraundeniableappeal.
…
Technicalequipmentistheresultofscienceandhightechnology.Unknowninformationinanadvertisementaccountsforalargeproportion.Unlikedailyconsumergoodsads,nointroductionofaproductisnecessaryinheadline,becausewearesofamiliarwiththesedailyusedproductsthatalmostallinformationbecomesgiveninformation.Therefore,headlinesoftechnicalequipmentadsmeantoattractreadersbydisplayingtheunknowninformationofaproduct.
However,serviceadstendtogivepromiseinheadlinetoattractreaders.Forexample:
Whereveryouare,wheneveryouneedus,theAllianzGroupisalwaysthereforyou.
Therightbankcanmakeallthedifference.
Cancerpatientsflyfreeonthewingsofangles.
…
Banks,insurancecompanies,publicutilitiesandairlinespreferusingbenefitheadlinestoemphasizewhattheycandotocustomers.Consumergoodsandtechnicalequipmentcanpresentthemselvesinbeautifulpictures.However,serviceadsarenotabletopresenttheir“product”inprintexceptlanguage.So,theyhavetohighlighttheir“product”intheheadline.
4.Discoursefeatures
4.1BodyCopyofanAdvertisement
Ingeneral,awrittenadvertisementconsistsoffiveparts:headline,bodycopy,slogan,illustrationandtrademarkamongwhichheadline,bodycopyandsloganarethemainparts.Headlineplaysaroleincatchingattentionfromreaders;slogancanbeusedasadevicetocreateacorporateimageandacommonpracticetoconcludeadvertisement.
Inthissectionwewilldiscussthebodycopyasadiscoursecomponent.Theadvertisertellsthecompletesalesstoryinthebodycopy.Setinsmallertypethanheadlinesorsubheads,thebodycopyisalogicalcontinuationoftheheadlineandsubheads.Itisalsowherethesaleisclosed.Thebodycopyshouldrelatetothecampaignappealandtothereader’sself-interest,anditmustexplainhowtheproductorservicebeingadvertisedsatisfiesthecustomer’sneed.Thebodycopymayconcentrateononeorseveralbenefitsastheyrelatespecificallytothetargetaudience.Insomecases,especiallyindailygoodsads,bodycopyisomittedjustbecausereadersknowwhattheyare.
4.2DifferencesinBodyCopys
Copysfallintomanycategories.Somecommontypesofcopysincludestraight-sellcopy,institutionalcopy,narrativecopy,dialogue/monologuecopy.
Inastraight-sellcopy,thetextimmediatelyexplainsordevelopstheheadlineinastraightforwardattempttoselltheproduct.Sincetheproduct’ssalespointsaretickedoffinorderoftheirimportance,straight-sellcopyisparticularlyadvantageousfortechnicalproductsthatmaybedifficulttouseindirect-mailadvertisingandindustrialsituations.Manycameraads,forexample,usethisstraight,factualcopytogetthemessageacross.Thestraight-sellapproachemphasizesthereasonwhytheconsumershouldbuysomething.Forexample:
PickuprightwhereyouleftoffwiththenewC-2000ZOOMfilmlessdigitalcamera.
Youlovedtakingpicturesthen.You’llloveitevenmorenowwiththe2.1megapixelC-2000ZOOM.It’llremindyouofyourfavoritefilmcameraofyesterday,butwithalltheadvantagesOlympusfilmlessphotographyofferstoday.OnlytheC-2000ZOOM,forexample,incorporatesanall-glass,aspherical3xzoomlenssystemfeaturingalargeaperturef2.0lensthat’sexceptionallyfastandbright.Alongwithautomaticormanualfeatureslikeapertureandshutterpriority,spotmetering,exposurecompensation,whitebalanceandISOsettings.Andjustlikeyourfilmcamera,theC-2000ZOOMgrowswithyouwhenyouaddexternalflash,lightingequipment,lensesorfilter.SobringbackoldmemorieswhilecreatingnewoneswiththeC-2000ZOOMfromOlympus--THEWORLDLEADERINFILMANDFILMLESSPHOTOGRAPHY.
Sometimestheadvertiserusestheinstitutionalcopytosellanideaorthemeritsoftheorganizationorserviceratherthansalesfeaturesofaparticularproduct.Ofteninstitutionalcopyisalsonarrativeinbecauseitlendswarmthtotheorganization.Serviceads,suchasadsofbanks,insurancecompanies,publicutilities,andlargemanufacturingconcernsarethemostcommonusersoftheinstitutionalcopy.
Advertisersusethenarrativecopytotellastory.Itoftensetsupaproblemandthencreatesasolutionusingtheparticularsalesfeaturesoftheproductorservice.Itmaythensuggestthattheaudiencesusethesamesolutioniftheyhavethatproblem.Serviceadvertisementsareoftenwritteninthis.Forinstance:
LIFEINSURANCEISN’TFORTHEPEOPLEWHODIE.
IT’SFORTHEPEOPLEWHOLIVE.
“ItbrokemyhearttohearmydaughterDorseysayshewishedherdaddywasstillhere.Butthankstohisforesight,we’llstillhavethethingsheworkedfor”
DorseyHoskins’fatherBryanfeltatinglinginhisarm.Thediagnosis—aninoperablebraintumor.Hediedsixmonthslater,at33,leavinghiswifeDeanalonetoraiseDorseyandhersisterHattie.Fortunately,Bryanboughtlifeinsurancewhenhegotmarried,andagainwhenhisdaughterswereborn.Deaninvestedtheproceedsinherownclothingstore,whichgiveshertheflexibilitytospendmoretimewithherchildren.
Areyouprepared?Withoutinsurance,yourfinancialplanmaybejustasavingsandinvestmentprogramthatdieswhenyoudo.Aninsuranceagentorotherfinancialprofessionalcanhelpyoucreateaplanthatwillcontinuetoprovidefortheonesyoulove.
Byusingadialogue/monologuecopy,theadvertisercanaddthebelievabilitythatthenarrativecopysometimeslacks.Thecharactersportrayedinaprintadvertisementdothesellingintheirownwords,throughatestimonialorquasi-testimonialtechnique,orthroughacomic-strippanel.Allkindsofadscanusethisbodycopy,ifnecessary.Forexample:
WhenIwantaCDdoneright,Idoitmyself.Yeah,thismachinerocks.Itburnsfull-sizeCDsthatsoundtotallyliketheoriginal.ItplaysCDs.RecordsCDtoCDatdoublespeed.Andrecordsoffofjustaboutanysource.LPs.Cassettes.Theradio.It’sevengotatextdisplay.Anyway,nowI’vegotmyowngreatesthitscollection.ThestuffIwanttolistento.I’vegottoadmitit’sgettingbetter.
5.Conclusion
Uptonow,wehaveanalyzedlanguagefeaturesofadsatthreelevels.Linguisticsimilaritiesanalyzedinthispaperandsharedbyallkindsofadsareshownasfollows:
Ⅰ.Lexicalfeatures
a.One-syllableandsimpleverbssuchasgetandmakeareused.
b.Emotiveadjectivesareadoptedtoarousereader’sinterest.
c.Wordsarecarefullychosentomakepunandalliteration.
d.Weaselwords,suchashelpandlike,maketheuseofstrongestlanguagepossibleinadvertisements.
Ⅱ.Syntacticalfeatures
a.Sentencesinadvertisementsareshort.Onaverage,asentenceconsistsof11.8words.
b.Ellipticalsentencesareusedtospareadvertisingcostandatthesametimeimproveadvertisingeffectiveness.
c.Interrogativesentencesandimperativesentencesarecommoninadvertisements
d.Presenttenseprevailsinadstosuggesttimelessness.Andactivevoiceisusedtocatertoaudience’shabitindailytalk.
Ⅲ.Discoursefeatures
Acompleteadvertisementconsistsoffiveparts:Headline,BodyCopy,Slogan,Illustration
andTradeMark.Bodycopyisthekeypart,conveyingproductorserviceinformation.
Whilesummarizingsimilaritiesoflanguagefeaturesofthreekindsofadvertisements,wehavediscussedthedifferencesbetweentheseadsonthefollowingdimensions:
First,inordertoachievethehighestadvertisingeffectiveness,theadvertiserpreciselytargetstheaudiencebytheirsocialstatus,roles,income,educationalbackgroundandgender.Thereforeadvertisinglanguageadjustsitselftogetclosetotargetaudience.
Second,dailyconsumergoods,technicalequipmentandservicearetotallydifferentadvertisingsubjects.Forexample,somewordsintechnicalequipmentadsarecomprehensibleonlytothoseacquaintedwiththatfield.TakeiMACPCasanexample.AllthefeaturesofiMAC,plus:400MHZ,G3processor,slot-loadingDVDdrive,10GBdiskstorage,dual400MbpsFireWireports,andiMovievideoeditingsoftware.Laymenofcomputersmustfeelconfusedbythesedazzlingfiguresandunits.However,inordertomaketheinformationofatechnicalproductclear,somejargonsarenecessary.Thereforedifferentkindofadsspeakdifferentlanguage.
Thestudyhasshownthatthreekindsofadvertisementsinthecorpusrespectivelydemonstratetheirownuniquelanguagefeatures.
Indailyconsumergoodsads,descriptiveadjectivestendtoconveysensesofsight,taste,andtouchinthehopeofsatisfyingwomen''''sappealforbeautyandcomfort.Nojargonisused.Headlinesofdailyconsumergoodsadstendtoaskquestiontoarousetheinterestofaudience,especiallywomen''''s.Thebodycopyseemsnotsoimportantandessentialasthatoftheadvertisementforproductsrequiringhightechnologicalinformation,thusinsomecasesbodycopyisomittedindailyconsumergoodsads.
Intechnicalequipmentads,poundwords,particularlycompoundjargons,arefrequentlyusedtoexactlyintroduceacomplicatedproduct.Headlinesoftechnicalequipmentmeantoattractreadersbytransferringtheunknowninformationofaproduct,sotheyareofteninformation/newsheadlines.
pbl教学教学案例范文第5篇
关键词:PBL教学法细胞工程教学改革
中图分类号:G64 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1674-2060(2016)03-0292-02
PBL(Problem-BasedLearning)是基于构建主义教育理念而发展起来的一种“以问题为基础”的教学法[1],是1969年Barrows在加拿大McMaster大学创立[2],是近年来国际上受到广泛重视的一种教学模式。目前,国内外越来越多的学校开展教学改革,将PBL教学法应用在医学、理工、化学甚至电子、商学、法律等学科领域。与传统的教育模式相比,PBL教学法强调把学习设置到复杂的、有意义的问题情景中,将抽象的理论知识和实际案例结合起来,鼓励学生通过自主学习和集体讨论、相互协作来分析、解决问题,从而学习到相关的科学知识。在培养学生创造性思维和解决问题能力等方面,PBL教学法具有良好的效果。研究发现,该教学法可全面提高教师教学质量和学生的综合学习能力[3]。生物技术专业旨在培养有良好的科学素质、较强的创新意识和实践能力的人才。如何提高学生的综合学习能力,培养学生创造性思维和解决问题能力一直是备受关注的问题。本文在比较和分析传统教学法和PBL教学法特点的基础上,以北师大珠海分校生物技术专业2012级和2013级本科学生为对象,初步探讨PBL教学法在细胞工程教学中的应用,为生物技术专业教学改革提供一定的客观依据。
1研究对象
以北京师范大学珠海分校工程技术学院2012级、2013级生物技术专业4个教学班学生为对象,设置对照组和实验组,对照组学生为2012级和2013级生物1班学生,共80人,实验组学生为2012级和2013级生物2班学生共87人。学生入学成绩比较无显著性差异(P>0.05)。
2PBL教学法的实际应用
与传统的单纯教学、复习旧课、讲授新课、小结及总结、布置作业的教学形式相比,PBL教学法采用情景教学,将教学过程分为提出问题、分析和建立假设、收集资料、讨论及论证假设、总结反思5阶段[4]。这个模式类似于目前研究生教育中的Seminar课程的形式,教师的作用重点是进行引导和总结[5]。学生往往需要查看大量的文献资料,利用课堂整合并学习各种综合知识、交叉课程。
2.1实际案例的选择
在充分分析教材《(细胞工程》,安利国主编)的基础上,结合企业、实验课程的实践,选定八个章节制定主体模块(如“单克隆抗体之生物导弹技术”“、干细胞与组织工程之皮肤美容”“、植物快繁体系的建立之胡萝卜愈伤组织的诱导”“、传染与免疫”等),通过问题引导学生课前查阅相关资料,课上讨论并根据现象分析原因,提出解决方案。
2.2PBL教学法的实施
1)设置情景,提出问题自由组队,以5-8人为一个小组,通过阅读资料,与老师一起提出问题。2)自主学习,收集资料通过教材、参考书、图书馆、互联网等有针对性进行自学,收集并整理资料。3)分组讨论,分析归纳通过资源共享,小组讨论,对问题进行解答,并设计实验提出解决方案。4)总结评价,检测矫正将解决方案以报告形式向全班学生进行展示,并在实验教学中应用检测。
3结果与分析
3.1学生期末考试成绩
从表1可以看出,PBL教学法在细胞工程学教学过程中的影响。从学生期末试卷成绩可以看出,实验组和对照组学生期末成绩无显著性差异(P>0.05);但从平均分数可以看出,实验组学生成绩明显高于对照组。
3.2学生教学反馈
教学改革主要通过两方面进行教学评价,一方面是学生最终成绩,另一方面就是学生的教学评价。通过学生教学质量评价调查,实验组学生在教学效果、内容的系统性、教学互动、激发学生兴趣、引导学生思考问题等几方面满意度有了明显的提高。PBL的教学课堂气氛十分活跃,改变以往单纯听课的状态,学生主动参与到课堂的教学中,并化被动为主导,通过讨论进行演讲展示。以问题带动思考,在案例中学习理论知识,掌握的更加牢固,并开拓学生视野。学生不仅扩展知识面,更学会多种查找资料的方法,充分提高了获取各方面信息的能力。通过他人的带动学习,不会查文献的同学也无形中逐渐提高了自学能力,更增加学生的团队协作能力。
4PBL教学法在实际教学中出现的问题
4.1PBL教学案例的选择
[6]PBL教学法是以问题为基础“,问题”是整个教学的出发点,学生在教师的指导下,以小组的形式针对问题进行探究,并提出解决方案,进而挖掘问题背后的科学知识[7]。但往往一个问题的解决方案和结果不是单一的,是多样的,不存在唯一性。且生物技术专业教学案例较少,部分案例知识覆盖面较窄,不能覆盖全部的章节内容。
4.2对学生个人能力的要求
由于我国的教学体制一直延用传统教学方法,主要以老师讲授为主。学生的自学能力较弱,查找资料能力差,归纳总结能力有待提高。所以,刚接触PBL教学模式,学生会很新鲜,对问题创设表现出无从下手,不知所措,课下查找资料也比较盲目,不能把握问题的重点,讨论也没有针对性等等。另外,学生获取信息、加工和评价信息的能力很差,盲目地找寻,效率很差[4]。因此,PBL教学法对学生个人的自身能力要求很高,教学改革初期,要求老师做好引导和前期指导工作,在平时教学中注重培养学生查阅资料能力、分析归纳能力,以提高学生的综合素质。
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