学习语言的方法
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学习语言的方法范文第1篇
【关键词】汉语言文学；学习方法；系统化；抓重点；多练习
汉语言文学学习对我们日常生活中的交谈，沟通是十分必要的，汉语言与我们每个人的生活都是息息相关的，我们每天通过各种方式使用汉语言，掌握汉语言这门基本的课程直接影响到我们的日常生活。汉语言文学的类型繁多，种类丰富，有诗词歌赋，小说，散文等等，针对不同类型的汉语言文学，应该有不同的学习方法和学习技巧，这样才能够掌握好汉语言。汉语言文学的学习与其他语言或者课程是有共通之处的，比如说，在学习汉语言文学的记忆技巧中，在背诵诗词歌赋时，可以采用一些背诵技巧，譬如英语单词的背诵技巧有词义分析，联想记忆法，词缀词根的分类记忆法，举一个简单的例子，英语单词有许多的后缀，如—tor，或者—er，有这类词缀的单词一般属于名词且，比如work加er后缀变成worker，就从动词变成了名词。类似英语单词这种单词分类，后缀等的记忆方法也可以运用到汉语言文学的学习中。汉语言文学的有效学习方法要在学习经验中，多加总结或者套用一些其他科目课程的学习技巧。另外，在学习汉语言中，针对字词的学习可以通过形声字或者句子等来帮助记忆和学习。总的来说，汉语言文学的学习存在一些问题，但是这些困难是可以通过变通来解决的，汉语言文学的学习要注重技巧和方法，要提高学习效率或者掌握更多的汉语言文学知识就必须要下足功夫，探寻有效的学习方法。
一、汉语言文学的学习要系统化
汉语言文学主要由汉语语音，语法和词汇组成，汉语言这门课程的学习强调系统学习，要建立系统的知识结构，在学习汉语言文学时，首先要把汉语言的内容，模块进行系统化的整理，在脑袋中形成一定的知识架构，这样，才能够实现知识的衔接和记忆。汉语言文学的教材在编排上一般会按照基础到提升部分，在学习汉语言文学时，就必须要按照基础——提升，这样的顺序，系统化学习是能够全面地掌握整体知识，系统化学习还讲求对知识的衔接，汉语言文学的基础知识对后面较难的部分是关键的，只有掌握基础知识才能够进一步学习更深的部分，汉语言系统化学习就要求不能够遗漏任何知识模块，否则系统化学习就不完整。汉语言文学的组成成员中，相对比较基础的内容，比如汉字或者词组，要完整地掌握这部分级别较低的组成成员，就像英语学习中，单词是基础一样，没有单词就没有完整的句式和文章。认识到课程的系统性，然后明确学习顺序，知识的结构，学习中才能在脑海中形对汉语言文学的学习蓝图，汉语言系统化学习就必须对基础知识有一个比较全面的认识，然后才能够打好基础，以便后续学习中将知识模块串联起来，把相关的知识系统化地联系起来。系统化学习还能够方便我们的记忆，很多人在学习语言时，记忆的东西总是成为一个难点，这是因为他们没有掌握一些必要的记忆技巧，另外，是因为他们没有理解性地进行记忆，没有掌握知识结构和知识系统，这样他们要记忆东西就会比较难。只有认识到汉语言文学系统化学习的重要性，并且在学习中把握好系统化学习方法，才能够帮助我们更好地学习汉语言文学。
二、汉语言文学的学习必须要抓住学习重点
汉语言文学内容丰富，并且理论也很多，要学习好汉语言文学就必须对学习内容进行必要的整理，总结，要把握汉语言文学的重点内容，深入学习。其实，任何科目都是有偏重点的，汉语言文学的学习也有它的重点，加强对重点的学习，有目的性地学习才能掌握真正有用的东西。汉语言文学中，存在着名词术语较多，知识点多，语言或者句子的表达形式多样的情况，因此，面对这么多的汉语言文学知识，我们不可能全部都啃下来，只能是有针对性地抓出重点来学习，抓重点学习又具体分为三个层面，第一是针对名词术语的学习，这方面具体来说就是对汉字，词汇，拼音，语法语音等的重点学习，拼音是汉语言的基础，掌握拼音，我们才能实现语言的沟通，只认得字而不会读是没有用的。抓住重点来说，就首先要掌握这些基本的，也是重点的部分来深入学习。另外，语音学习的话可以通过磁带或者录音等来配合我们的学习，磁带或者课本一般会有配套的磁带，它有很全面，正确的语音教学，可以多利用这些东西来学好汉语言基础。第二，是对句子或句式的分析方法。汉语言文学从词汇到句子再到整片文章，是一个逐渐提高的过程，汉语句子句式的学习也是一个重点。汉语言句式分类很多，有陈述句，感叹句，反问句等等，这些特殊的句式对句子的意思是有直接的影响的，同样一段文字，加上不用的标点符号意思就可能完全改变，因此，句式学习不仅是汉语言文学学习的重点，也是一个难点，只有搞懂每个特殊句式，才能够正确理解文章的意思。要掌握句式的含义，必须要掌握每种句式的结构，遇到具体问题还要进行句式分析，经过分析确定句子所表达的意义。另外，汉语言文学中，在文言文的学习上，是相对比较难的，文言文的句式其实也都有一个明确的结构，面对文言文时，要分清楚每段话的特殊句式或者句子的含义，分析和探究汉语言文学的句子句式，掌握这个重点，这样对能更好地学好汉语言文学。第三，汉语言中，对关联词，连接词的重点掌握。汉语言文学中，句子与句子之间一般都要通过关联词来进行链接，关联词对整片文章的衔接性或者通顺与否都是有很大影响的。对关联词的意思不明确的话就不能够搞清楚句子的意思，所以，在学习好汉语言文学时，关联词的学习也是一个重点。关联词就像词汇一样是必须花时间去记忆，积累的。在日常沟通中，关联词的运用也是很多的，关联词应该作为汉语言文学学习的一个重点来讲，汉语言的学习重点，总的来说，可以从这三个方面入手，还有一些其他的方面，比如还有理论表述方法等等，但是，归结起来就是要对汉语言文学进行重点模块学习，不能够全部接收也不能全部放掉。只有抓住重点，学习效果才会明显，学习效率也才能够提高。
三、多动手，多做练习才能够掌握知识
前面提到的主要的学习方法和学习重点，在上述的基础上，学好汉语言文学还有一点重要要求，就是要动手实践，多做练习。我们在学习汉语言文学时，学到再多的理论或者懂得再多的学习技巧，没有动手去实践，没有做配套的练习还是不能够掌握知识的。俗话说，勤能补拙，勤动手，多做练习才能把学到的理论进行实践，才能在做练习过程中发现知识的学习是否有遗漏或者学习重点是否正确等等，学习汉语言就不能离开实效练习。做练习，是我们检验学习成果的一个重要途径，也是巩固知识的一个重要手段，在做练习中，我们可以深入对一些问题的探讨或者研究，也能够加深对知识的理解，因此，在掌握基础知识和理论依据的同时，必须要多做练习才能够平衡理论和实践的关系，才能够综合学好汉语言文学。
总的来说，汉语言文学的学习需要全面地、系统化地，并且有重点地进行，有效的学习不仅需要学习技巧，还需要多做习题。掌握有效的学习技巧后，要配合多做练习才能巩固知识，这样才是科学的、有效的学习方式。
学习语言的方法范文第2篇
关键词：幼儿 语言游戏化 方法
目前教育界普遍认可的一个观点是，语言发展是智力发育的关键因素，而幼儿时期是人脑发育最迅速也是语言发展的敏感时期，在这段时期，如果对幼儿以科学的方法加以教育，可以使幼儿在提高语言表达能力的同时培养自身独特的思维能力，能够有效地促进幼儿认知、情感和思维领域的全面发展。因此对于幼儿的语言教育必须给予足够的重视。而由于游戏能推动幼儿语言和思维的发展，语言游戏化教学也逐渐吸引了广大教育工作者的目光。笔者经过实践的积累，总结了三点幼儿语言游戏化的教学方法。
一、开展区域活动，创造丰富的语言环境
在课堂上创设幼儿同伴间的情境交流模式，为幼儿提供丰富的语言环境。幼儿通过对自身现实生活的再现，在假想的情境中进行角色扮演。在这些角色游戏中，幼儿由于生活经验的不足，对于有些事物只停留在表面的印象教师一方面应让孩子进行角色扮演，同时也不能将自己视为局外人，要抓住合适的机会来丰富和拓展幼儿的语言内容。比如在进行“买卖”扮演时，幼儿通过想象的情境来进行角色扮演，幼儿根据自己的生活经验组织词语，同时教师还可以引导幼儿做些简单的动作，同时配合着不同的表情。在“买卖”游戏中，有的幼儿对于超市的印象只停留在卖吃的上面，这时教师就可以询问一句“你们超市还有其他东西卖吗”，通过询问，将幼儿的思维进一步扩散。而这样幼儿纷纷回忆以前去超市的经历，并且能够通过自己的言语描述出来。
除了“做中说”外，还有“做后说”，比如在看图讲诉《打扫卫生》时，可以先安排几名幼儿表演剧情，在表演完后，让幼儿描述剧情中的内容，这样的方法就比单纯地看图讲诉有效地多。“做后说”，能够让幼儿运用更丰富的词语来更形象地描述剧情。“做前说”，在安排幼儿进行某项区域活动时，可以先让幼儿讲诉自己的计划，打算怎样玩，玩什么，然后按自己描述的去做。
在角色游戏不断开展的过程中，随着幼儿的生活经验不断丰富，能够提供的情境也不断增加，幼儿的角色游戏会逐渐深入，情节也不断丰富，而幼儿置身于这样的情景游戏中，不仅能够培养幼儿的语言能力，而且能够培养幼儿的合作意识。
二、适当提问，通过语言游戏，打开幼儿思路
在语言教学中，好的提问一方面能够吸引幼儿的注意力，另一方面也能够打开幼儿的思路，促进幼儿去思考问题。如果教师在语言教学中的提问，仍然停留在“好不好”，“对不对”“是不是”中，那么幼儿会对这样的提问反感，而且也会以敷衍的方式去回答，完全没有起到有效教学的作用。此外，如果教师的提问没有任何技巧，而且也不注意难度的话，也同样会导致幼儿对回答问题产生抗拒的心理。而在语言游戏中，通过一系列有技巧性、有针对性地提问，丰富幼儿的词汇，使得幼儿在语言表达上更加准确。比如在春天，向幼儿提问，春天来了，在幼儿园中可以看见什么。有的幼儿回答：“小花小草”；有的回答：“蝴蝶”，有的回答：“绿叶”。同时让幼儿从断句开始，慢慢将长句说完，比如“春天来了，小草发芽了，万物复苏了”等。而针对幼儿在语言表达上的不规范，可以采用“你说我找”的语言游戏。在游戏中中，教师可以挑选幼儿在语言表达中比较容易犯的错误进行表述，让幼儿来寻找这段话中的错误，由于这些错误是幼儿平时经常犯的，而现在自己能够发现，也偏于以后能够纠正。同时可以采用小红花这样一个奖励方式，抽取幼儿来回答问题，答对了奖励小红花。比如提问：“XX小朋友，你知道汽车和什么工具功能差不多吗”，“鱼和虾的共同点吗”，由于小红花存在的激励作用，幼儿往往会争先恐后地要回答。通过一系列的问题，不仅能够让幼儿关注生活，而且丰富幼儿的词汇，促进口语表达能力和思维能力的发展。
三、将教材贯穿于游戏化教学中
正规、专门的幼儿语言教学活动，是幼儿语言教育的主要途径。在这种正规的语言教学活动中，离不开教材。所以教师需要根据幼儿的特点，选取能激发幼儿兴趣的对象来打到语言教学的母的。
首先，可以通过儿歌来训练幼儿的语音。正确的发音，对于语言学习来说，能够起到事半功倍的作用。而儿歌教学由于其自身有着优美的节奏和韵律，幼儿能够比较容易接受，而平时经常朗诵儿歌，也能够使得语音的纠正见效很快。此外，在日常的语言教学中念绕口令，猜谜语等小游戏都能够训练幼儿准确地发出一些比较困难的易错的音。这些方法能够将正确的语法、词汇与幼儿口语结合起来，不仅能够激发幼儿本身具有的模仿兴趣，而且能够在潜移默化中提高幼儿的语言表达能力。
其次，儿童故事也是幼儿喜爱的题材。幼儿喜欢听故事，是因为故事里有着不同的画面，不同的人物，能够供幼儿自己去想象。此外，通过对幼儿讲解儿童故事一方面能够丰富幼儿的词汇量，使幼儿能够从上下文的语言情景来学习单词，并且能够根据语境，在以后的生活中模仿着使用新的单词。同时通过讲故事能够培养幼儿善于倾听的技能，通过听来促进幼儿语言能力的提高。
大量的研究表明：只有激发幼儿学习语言的兴趣，才能真正促进幼儿语言能力的提高。而游戏化教学，通过开展区域活动，进行提问，将教材贯穿于其中，为幼儿提供了语言实践的机会，发展了幼儿口语交际的能力。
参考文献：
[1]李成梅.多样化活动促进幼儿语言发展[J].基础教育参考，2012（02）
学习语言的方法范文第3篇
【关键词】西方经济学；原理；研究方法
一、宏观经济学的基本概念和研究对象
（1）西方经济学的基本概念。西方经济学是一个内容相当广泛而松散的名词，迄今在世界上尚不存在一个众所同意的定义。它可以泛指大量与经济问题有关的各种不同的文献、资料和统计报告，其中包括教科书、官方文件、私营经济记录、专业或非专业著作、报刊杂志的文章和报道等等。（2）宏观经济学与微观经济学。政治经济学或称理论经济学，是以人类社会在特定生产方式下的经济生活，即人类赖以生存和发展所必需的物质资料和劳务的生产、分配、交换（在劳动产品是商品的条件下）和消费作为研究对象的一门社会科学。
二、西方经济学的研究方法
1．实证方法。实证分析构成经济学的基本内容，也是经济学的一个基本方法。西方经济学认为，要使经济学能成为真正的科学，就必须抛开价值判断问题，使经济实证化。中国经济学有着深厚的规范分析的传统，致使经济学在很大程度上无法解释现实经济，在许多问题的讨论上始终无法得到一个相对一致的结论。所以，在经济学研究中引入实证方法不仅是一个重要的方法问题，还关系到经济学的社会价值问题。
2．数学方法。数学方法是经济学家“工具箱”中一个重要的工具。一些经济学家把数学当作经济分析的唯一手段，不顾条件地加以运用，这种运用在很大程度上是一种形式主义的运用。主要表现在：第一，有些文章不是从研究的需要出发运用数学工具，而把数学公式模型作为装点。第二，有些研究成果假设过多而且随意性很大，在资料的处理上往往人为地进行“调整”，降低了论证的说服力。第三，有些运用数学方法取得的研究成果，由于缺乏必要的定性研究作指导和必要的经济理论知识作支撑，往往是前后矛盾或违背常识，貌似科学、严密，实则有很多漏洞，更无法操作。
3．结构分析方法。结构主义是西方经济增长理论和发展经济学所采用的分析方法，也是现代经济学中一种具有很大影响的理论思路。这一方法的理论特征是从经济整体性及结构分析的角度分析经济的发展。他们认为，在发展中国家，经济结构缺乏弹性，价格的相对变动对资源重新配置的推动作用很小，供给与需求向均衡点的运动不能自动进行，从而市场不能结清，缺口无法填平。因此，发展中国家经济中普遍存在的不是自我均衡的体系，而是持续的不均衡状态。这种不均衡状态的主要根源是部门间的结构上的差异。因此，必须把经济分解成几个构成部分，从结构联系的角度去分析经济发展的进程。比较系统完整地介绍了西方经济学研究方法，并根据其个人研究成果，作了相当的补充和完善，构成了一个有一定独创特色的比较完整的经济学方法论体系。
4．观察与实验。观察与实验是科学研究的开始，其中，“观察”是指在不进行人为干预的前提下，将实际发生的经济现象及其过程客观地记录下来。“实验”则是在某种人工控制条件下，小范围模拟现实经济现象，并据此对现实经济现象进行分析和推断。在观察和实验时，需要掌握一定的科学调查统计技术，如全面普查、重点调查、典型调查、抽样调查等。由于经济信息常常涉及到人的切身利益，当事人常常会有意无意、或多或少地隐瞒甚至假造数据和事实，因而为了获得确切的事实材料，还需要掌握必要的访谈技巧，一般的原则是拉近感情、隐蔽企图、旁敲侧击、催人入眠、多方印证。
5．理论模型。理论模型可以用文字描述，也可以用数学公式（Mathematics formula）表达。现代西方经济学一般倾向于应用数学公式，其基本做法是：将所有研究对象都称为“变量”（Variables），然后先做出一定的假设（Hypothesis），通常假定除所要研究的少数几个主要变量外，其它所有变量和外部条件都不变（Other things constant，或Ceteris paribus），在此假设前提下，再以有关数据材料为基础，通过逻辑分析和统计检验，建立主要变量之间的逻辑关系。建立理论模型时要注意“合理假设”。原则上只有无关紧要的因素，才可以忽略不计，或假设为不变。但究竟哪些因素可以忽略不计，哪些因素不能忽略？需要根据具体问题具体分析。
6．均衡分析与非均衡分析。目前西方经济学中占主导地位的是均衡分析方法。作为一个系统，社会经济内部诸因素之间客观上存在一定的比例关系，因此均衡分析作为一种基本的经济学方法得到普遍应用，是很自然的。但另一方面，社会经济系统内部结构是相当松散的，并且经常处于变动中，包括各因素之间的数量比例关系，也都在不停地变化，因而非均衡分析的思路也很值得引起重视。
参考文献
学习语言的方法范文第4篇
Key words: short massage or SM， misunderstanding， cooperative principle， body language， facial expression， intonation， stress， written language
摘要：本文的开头对移动电话的短消息（又称短信）作了简要的介绍。尽管短消息的出现给人们带来了方便，短消息自身语言的特点导致了它容易被人们误解。从语言学的角度，本文分析了导致短信被误解的几个因素。第一，短消息语言违背了合作原则。人们在交际过程中，常常会采用一种准则。为了很好的交流，人们回遵守“会话准则”。而短信语言对准则的违背，导致了短信的作用不明确。并且，人们在解释短信内容时，往往只根据自己的经验。第二，与面对面的谈话和电话通讯相比，短信缺少肢体语言、表情、适当的重音和语调。第三，短信语言与书面语言相比，具有随意性。文章的结尾对相关的问题提出了解决的办法。
关键词：短消息或短信、误解、合作原则、肢体语言、表情、重音、语调、书面语言
An Analysis of Short Message Language and Behaviors with a Linguistic Approach
Thesis statement: Short message is vulnerable to misunderstanding， which can be explained by the violation of the cooperative principle， and in contrast with traditional conversation and written language， the deficiency of short message is analyzed.
Outline
I
Introduction
II
The vulnerability of SM to misunderstanding from the perspective of the cooperative principle
A. Introduction of cooperative and the violation of maxims
B. Three kinds of misunderstanding
⑴ The indefinite nature of the sender’s message
⑵ A number of factors affecting the interpretation of SM
⑶ The query concerning the end of SM conversation
III The deficiency of SM in contrast with face-to-face conversation and TEL call
A. The lack of body language and expression
B. The lack of stress and intonation
IV The casualness of SM in contrast with written language
A. SM processed at random
B. The differences between SM language and written language
V Conclusion
I Introduction
Short Message Service (SMS) is a new communicational tool that combines the functions of mobile phone and pager. According to the statistics from Global GPS Association， the total number of SMs has reached 510 billion in 2003， and China accounts for one third of them， soaring to 170 billion. SM is regarded as a convenient， highly democratic， informational medium for conveying messages that conforms well to human needs. As a modern communication tool， SM has many advantages which are absent in other communication medias. For example， SM enables dumb people to communicate freely with healthy people; SM makes no noise which may bother others; SM protects privacy， because no third party knows the content of SM conversation.
However， the characteristics of SM language also bring negative effects to people’s life. People find that SM is not so powerful and pleasant， and it can be easily misunderstood. With the help of linguistic approaches， factors that are responsible for the misunderstanding of SM are analyzed: 1). the violation of the cooperative principle. 2) SM can not take the place of face-to-face conversation. 3) SM is more casual than written language.
II The vulnerability of SM to misunderstanding from the perspective of the cooperative principle
The process of sending SM is so easy and informal that people treat it as they do conversation. SM is a bit like a conversation at the water cooler that can be instantly forwarded to 50 people. For a conversation to be successful， in most social contexts， the participants need to feel they are contributing something to it and are getting something out of it. For this to happen， certain conditions must apply. Everyone must have an opportunity to speak: no one should be monopolizing or constantly interrupting. The participants need to make their roles clear; they need to have a sense of when to speak or stay silent; when to proffer information or hold it back; when to stay aloof or become involved.
The success of a conversation depends not only on what speakers say but on their whole approach to the interaction. “Our talk exchanges do not normally consist of a succession of disconnected remarks， and would not be rational if they did. They are characteristically， to some degree at least， cooperative efforts; and each participant recognizes in them， to some extent， a common purpose or set of purposes， or at least a mutually accepted direction” (Grice 1975: 45).
People adopt a “cooperative principle” when they communicate with each other: they try to get along with each other by following certain conversational “maxims” that underlie the efficient use of language. Four basic maxims have been proposed.
The maxim of quality states that speakers’ contributions to a conversation ought to be true. They should not say what they believe to be false， nor should they say anything for which they lack adequate evidence.
The maxim of quantity states that contributions should be as informative as is required for the purposes of the conversation. One should say neither too little nor too much.
The maxim of relevance states that conversations should clearly relate to the purpose of the exchange.
The maxim of manner states that the contribution should be perspicuous， in particular， that it should be orderly and brief， avoiding obstructing ambiguity.
In short， these maxims specify what participants have to do in order to converse in a maximally efficient， rational， co-operative way: they should speak sincerely， relevantly and clearly， while providing sufficient information. But the use of terms principle and maxim does not mean that the cooperative principle and its maxims will be followed by everybody all the time. If people violate these maxims deliberately， listeners may draw inference from what speakers have said and work out the implicature of the utterance. But for SM users， violation of maxims is done passively.
Then let us take a look at the following short messages recorded in the author’s mobile phone.
No.1. A: “Still busy?”---9:40 pm
(Conversation started， but A’s purpose is confusing)
No.2. B: “Not too busy， what’s up?”---9:41 pm
(Actually B was very busy in his essay， may be writing， but B inferred that A must have something important to tell.)
No.3. A: “When you worked in the Computer Association， have you ever failed to negotiate with sponsors?”---9:46 pm
(It takes A 5 minutes to respond. He attempts to make his words appropriate. B has to suspend his work and wait for a direct answer. But this answer seems so irrelevant.)
No.4. B: “No”---9:47 pm
(B tries to concentrate on his work， so he responds briefly. A is quite frustrated by the failed negotiation and needs someone to comfort him. The single word “No” makes him think that if B is not busy， how B could be so cold.)
No.5. A: “Sorry， I thought you did， then， good night.”---9:49 pm
(Conversation has to be ended up unpleasantly)
No.6. B: “Good night.”---9:50 pm
(B is still unaware of A’s intention. He can do nothing but end conversation.)
The two participants of this short conversation violate the four maxims violations of maxims.
No.1 violates M of quantity. He says too little. He should state his purpose clearly.
No.2 violates M of quality. He says something that is false， but he has to.
No.3 Here A’s contribution in its literal meaning， fails to answer B’s question， and thus seems to violate at least the maxims of quantity and relevance. We might therefore expect A’s utterance to be interpreted as a non-co-operative response. Yet it is clear that despite this apparent failure of co-operation， we try to interpret A’s utterance as cooperative at some deeper level. We can assure that there could be some possible connection between No.2 and No.3. However， since it is a SM conversation， A and B could not see each other. B is actually in a hurry and he wants to go to the topic directly， but A wants a euphemistic way. Here SM is not powerful enough to connect the states of mind of the two persons.
No.4 also violates M of quantity. B is supposed to be considerate.
No.5 violates M of manner. Two sentences seem not orderly.
However， in our daily conversation， the implicatures of words are easily deduced. So why does the violation of co-operative principle in SM fail to enable people to work out the exact implicatures? There must be some other factors contributing to the understanding of words. We shall further discuss this point in the third section. Although the two participants of this short conversation do not violate maxims deliberately and purposefully， their words are misconstrued. And the misconstructions of SM can be sorted into three.
Firstly， the purpose of SM language is not definite， i.e.， the functions of SM language are not clear. Linguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense， that is， not in terms of using language to chat， to think， to buy and sell， to read and write， to greet people， etc. To communicate our ideas is the usual answer to the question “why do we use language?” Indeed， this must surely be the most widely recognized function of language. Whenever we tell people about our circumstances or ourselves or ask for information about other selves， we are using language in order to exchange fact sand opinions. The use of language is often called “ideational or referential”. But it would be problematic to think of it as the only way we use language. Linguists summarize these practical functions of language like following: informative， interpersonal， performative， emotive， phatic， recreational and metalingual (Hu 2001: 10). Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language that is language has IDEATIONAL， INTERPERSONAL， and Textual functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations， interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context (Halliday 1985: VIII).
Among them， the first two functions are often mixed up in SM language. For most people， the informative function is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel the need to speak their thoughts aloud as when they are working on a math problem.
And the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function， by which people establish and maintain a comfortable relation in a society. SM is a medium whose function is rather confusing. People use it to convey information， keep in touch with each other， share jokes， express emotions or even pass anger. But the recipient cannot tell which from which， he might deal with his short messages with an attitude that is unexpected by its sender. Let’s see the following example.
A: “I played football this afternoon， how tired I am.”
B: “Oh， really? You’re energetic!”
The conversation ends here. A feels tired after playing football， and sends a SM to one of his friends B to express his excitement. But this confuses B as to how to respond appropriately， or he may simply brood about it for quite a long time.
Secondly， the recipients of SM make their own interpretations based on situational effects and schemata. The first and the second sort of misunderstandings can be somewhat overlapping. Because function of SM language is not clear， people began to interpret messages with their own experience. Besides， the quantity of information conveyed is often inadequate， SM leaves a lot of blank spaces in what people say， which the recipient tends to fill with the most negative interpretations.
Thirdly， how to end SM conversation and when is the right time to end it also bother SM users a lot. No matter how people enjoy SM， writing it is very time consuming. If one wants to end it and the other does not， at least one will be unpleasant. It is unlikely that both of them are ready for SM conversation at the same time， because two people are in two environments.
III The deficiency of SM in contrast with face-to-face conversation and Tel call
People can hide themselves behind the tiny screens， and therefore， they are braver and they can tell whatever they like. So many people are now abusing it. But is it superior to face-to-face conversations and telephone calls? The answer might be no.
Firstly， SM lacks body language and facial expressions. The communicative use of the visual and tactile modes is often referred to as “nonverbal communication”， especially in academic discussion. In everyday terms， it is the area of “body language” (Crystal 1997: 403). Most people may not be aware of the importance of it when they message each other， because they do it subconsciously. The field of non-verbal visual communication， kinesics， can be broken down into several components: facial expression， eye contact， gesture， and body posture. Each component performs a variety of functions. Movements of the face and body can give clues to a person’s personality and emotional state. The face， in particular， signals a wide range of emotions， such as fear， happiness， sadness， anger， surprise， interest， and disgust. Many of the expressions vary in meaning from culture to culture. In addition， the face and body send signals about the way a social interaction is proceeding. Patterns of eye contact show who is talking to whom; facial expression provides feed-back to the speaker， expressing such meanings as puzzlement or disbelief; and a body posture conveys a person’s attitude towards the interaction (e.g. relaxation， interest， boredom).
Several kinds of social context are associated with specific facial or body behaviors (e.g. waving while taking leave.) Ritual or official occasions are often primarily marked by such factors as kneeling， or blessing. While SM only provides its recipient scores of characters (one short massage contains no more than 70 Chinese characters)， the sender’s facial expression or even his attitude towards what he said only depends on the recipient’s personal imagination. The real meaning of SM and intention thus are often misunderstood.
Besides， compared with traditional conversation， SM lacks proper stress and intonation. Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription， a raised vertical like [ ′] is used just before the syllable it relates to. A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables， the former being more prominent than the latter usually due to an increase in loudness， length or pitch. This means that stress is a relative notion. (Hu 2001:71) At the word level， it only applies to words with at least two syllables. Stress pattern in Chinese is easier， because we can just focus on sentence level， where a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other words in the sentence. Sentence stress is often used to express emphasis， surprise， etc， so that in principle stress may fall on any word or any syllable. For example， a SM conversation begins with a sentence like this， “I went shopping around Jiefangbei the whole day. I bought nothing.”
The sentence is quite clear， but which word does the sender emphasize? If this sentence is carried on a telephone or face-to-face conversation， it will not cause any puzzle.
Intonation， and other suprasegmental features of language， performs a variety of different functions. (Crystal 1992: 173) The most obvious function is to express a wide range of attitudinal meanings---excitement， boredom， surprise， friendliness， reserve， and many hundreds more. Intonation conveys a great deal about what is referred to as the “information structure” of the utterance. Intonation can help to organize language units that are more easily perceived and memorized.
IV The casualness of SM in contrast with written language
However， we cannot simply say the written form of speech is less powerful in communication. One thing that differs SM language from letters， and E-mail is the casualness of SM. SM is often processed under a random condition. The user may do it while he is having lunch， taking a walk， reading books， talking to others， or watching TV， etc. He could not focus all his attention on writing what he wants to say. He has to do it with little thought. Besides， sometimes， one SM user may message three others or more at the same time. The overloaded user has to speed it up， and the quality of SM decreases. But when people write letters， they are much more considerate. Unlike SM， sending letters is demanding， since we cannot write letters wherever and whenever we like. Once a letter is sent， little chance left for the addresser to explain it.
Thus， SM is more like a record of spoken language， and the number of its characters is quite limited (no more than 70， including punctuations). In the following parts， we focus on difference between SM language and written language.
The permanence of writing allows repeated reading and close analysis. It promotes the development of artful organization and more concise， intricately structured expression. Units of discourse， such as sentences and paragraphs， are clearly identified through layout and punctuation. (Crystal 1992: 181) By contrast， the spontaneity and rapidity of SM minimize the chance of complex preplanning， and it also lacks repetition， rephrasing filler phrases (such as you know， you see， think) that assist speakers to “think standing up”， and there is no use of intonation and pause to pide an utterance into manageable chunks.
The participants in written interaction cannot usually see each other， and they thus cannot rely on the context to help make clear what they mean， as they would when speaking. As a consequence， writing avoids words whose meaning rely on situation (such as this one， over there). Writers also have to anticipate the effects of time lag between production and reception. This is out of the question in SM. SM users assume that the other side is always ready for reception of SM (actually， it is quite normal that the recipient is very busy)， and that the feedback would come immediately. But SM is not time-bound， and the situation in which both participants are present is rare.
Written language tends to be more formal than SM language and is more likely to provide the standard that society values. Different people have developed their own SM habit or style. Some people frequently use punctuations， such as “:-)”， “:-(”， “:-=”， “:-*” ; some use capitalized word for example “Oh， TMD”， “I’ll T you” to express special meanings. These words， on one hand， make SM language vivid， but on the other hand， language barrier is formed. Not every body could understand these fashionable words， and it is being updated. People， especially those who seldom message another， find themselves trapped by these personally coined words and expressions.
V Conclusion
Mobile-based SM is not bad itself. Like the emergence of television， SM is also strongly criticized for its disadvantage. If we use it appropriately， it makes our life better. Here， several solutions are suggested.
In the absence of immediate feedback， available in most speech interaction， care needs to be taken to minimize the effects of vagueness and ambiguity.
⑴Before messaging， thinking about the recipient’s situation is helpful， e.g.， is the recipient still at his work? If time is not right， SM might bother the recipient.
⑵The language of SM must be well chosen. We can use fashion words or coined words when we message an intimate friends， because we share the same environment， and these words will work perfectly in communication. But if the recipient is not so familiar， we’d better use formal words. In other words， how we message should be based on the specific recipient.
⑶In terms of the contents of SM， it should not be used to discuss bad news. Never criticize somebody and never discuss if there’s any chance that what we say might be taken to a wrong way， we should pick up the phone or walk out to discuss it in person.
For the recipient， there are some other suggestions which might be helpful.
⑴If we are doing something very important， such as giving a lecture or having a conference， in which disturbance is not allowed， we had better shut off our mobile phones. Once a person tries to send us a short message， he or she may quickly find that the recipient is not available at that moment. Thus， waiting and further guessing can be avoided.
⑵However， it is inevitable to come across unpleasant words in SM， in terms of both language and content. We should bear this in mind that most people would send SM with little thoughts. If we do feel quite bothered， we should call the sender and make the matter clear as quickly as possible. Bibliography
Crystal， David. The Cambridge Encylopaedia of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press， 1992.
Grice， H. P. Logic and conversation. In P.Cole&J.L.Morgan(eds) Speech acts. New York:
Academic Press， 1975.
学习语言的方法范文第5篇
[关键词]：高中生 厌学 对策
学生厌学是一种典型的心理疲倦反应，是指学生消极对待学习活动的行为反应模式，主要表现为学生对学习认识存在偏差，情感上消极对待学习，行为上主动远离学习。所有这些都严重地影响着学生的学习热情和学习效果。这几年来通过对高中学生生物学习厌学的研究，我对厌学的教育方法有了一定的认识，愈是研究愈发觉得值得探究的问题和东西太多，而哪怕是解决了一小部分问题，都会对日常的教育教学工作有很大的帮助。
解决厌学的问题应该从社会，学校，家庭和学生四个方面入手。对于教师来说，帮助学生树立自尊心，增强自信心，营造良好的心理环境和学习环境；注重教学的科学性，教育方法的多样性，学生之间的合作学习，及时进行必要的基础知识的巩固，理论联系生活实际等是比较可行的策略。
1、构建和谐的师生关系，矫治学生厌学心理，减少学生厌学行为的发生
（1）.倾注爱心，尊重关爱学生。在课堂教学工作中，教师的事业心、责任心及其人格力量是学生健康成长的动力。教师在教学工作中应该倾注满腔热情，相信每个学生都会发展成才。教师要面向全体，善待每个学生，关爱每个学生，学生热爱老师，往往会将这种情感迁移到学习中来，似乎觉得不学好就对不住关心爱护自己的老师。
（2）欣赏鼓励，提高学生学习的积极性。学生在学习中存在缺点和问题属于正常现象。教师在课堂教育教学工作中，要不断地向学生提出合适的期望目标，采取与学生情感接近或相容的态度和方法，善于发现其长处并由衷地欣赏，形成和谐的情感基调；对学生的缺点和错误不能一味地指责或当众训斥，少一点审查责备的目光，多一些欣赏鼓励的热情，帮助他们在学习中取得进步，在成功或失败的体验中不断努力。
2、优化过程，激发学生兴趣
（1）.构建情境。教师要通过构建激发学生兴趣的教学情境，紧密联系实际，坚持情感渗透，激发学生参与学习的动机，通过设计一些开放性、发散性、挑战性的问题，选择有吸引力的材料，把学生从苦学的深渊带到乐学的天堂，变“要我学”为“我要学”，提高学生参与教学的主动性。教师要善于在教学中用幽默的方式，引发学生的兴趣，激发他们的求知欲，有利于让学生体会到学习知识的重要性，更有利于引导学生应用所学的知识去解决实际问题。
（2）.分层设标。学生可以分成好、中、差三等，对不同学生要求可以不同。分类分层制定有序的教学目标，激发学生自发、自主地学习，让不同层次的学生从不同的角度探究、有不同的发现，都尝到学习的甜头，赢得成功的喜悦。
（3）.开放教学。学生在课堂面对问题、情景和事实时，会有多种结论。教师要鼓励学生提出自己的观点，宽容失败，欣赏智慧，关注方法，避免打击学生的积极性。教师要充分发挥主导作用，针对学生情况，因材施教地指导学法，促进教学过程的开放，让学生感到学校有“自我发展区”，提高学习的自主性，为未来的发展奠定坚实的基础。
（4）.重视过程教学
爱因斯坦说：“发展独立思考和独立判断的一般能力，应当始终放在首位，而不应当把获得专业知识放在首位。如果一个人掌握了它的学科的基础理论，并学会独立地思考和工作，他必定会找到他自己的道路，而且比起那种主要以获得细节知识为其培训内容的人来，他一定会更好地适应进步和变化。”因此在生物学中引导学生建立一些基本的观点；掌握一些基本的研究生物问题的方法尤为重要。所以必须注重探究教学，能让学生体验探究的过程，感受成功的喜悦，引起学生的兴趣，增强学生对知识的理解和接受程度。
3、成功强化
成功可起到正强化作用，经常给学生呈现愉快的刺激，有助于推动学生积极主动地学习。在教学中创设成功机会，如设置不同程度的问题，让不同的学生获得表现的机会，增加学习的信心。适当降低学习目标，低起点、慢步子、是大部分学生能获得成功的重要途经；对于学习者来说，成功便是最好的奖励；而对于教育者来说，学习者的成功是结果，如果视之不见，漠不关心，那么很可能会熄灭学习者的学习热情，故仍需要奖励，如此，能使学生心理获得积极的满足感与自豪感。
4、正确归因
归因是学生对自己的学习行为结果的原因作出解释或推测的过程，是一种比较稳定的人格定量，它对后继学习产生深刻的影响。正确的归因，有助于推动后继学习；错误的归因，则往往会抑制后继学习。我们应该引导学生对自己的学习成败的原因归之于自身努力。成功了是努力到位，失败了是努力不够。不能归因于能力，否则，成功了可能助长骄傲情绪，失败了必定产生颓废心理，而后者极易导致厌学现象的发生。当学生认为自己天生愚笨时，很容易灰心丧气，泯灭信心，失去继续学习的勇气。除作努力归因外，还可作现实归因、兴趣归因、策略归因等，对后继学习均能起到积极作用。
5、把学校教育与家庭教育有机结合起来
良好的家庭教育对培养学生积极的学习态度十分重要.家长以身作则，提高素质，为孩子创设良好的家庭氛围（平等、民主、团结、和睦、融洽），争取创建学习型家庭。尊重孩子，家长不要以自己的想法和标准来要求和衡量孩子的成绩和决定，只要不违背原则，他们尽力发展了即可。了解孩子，关心孩子，缩短与孩子的心理距离。对孩子的缺点错误不是批评指责，而是分析、引导和帮助改正。
总之，高中学生对生物学习厌学现象是普遍存在、而且十分复杂的，涉及到家庭、社会、学校及学生等多个方面，应该进一步作深层次的探讨，选择适合的教育方法来准确地对待不同的学生。要彻底解决这个问题，需要教育工作者进行深入细致的探讨研究，需要全社会各方面的共同关注.期望本人对厌学的高中生有所帮助，我也会继续关注这一问题。
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