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AbstractEuphemismisderivedfromtaboo,whichisusedtodescribesomethinginappropriatetotalkaboutdirectlyincommunication.Itisaculturalphenomenonaswellasarhetoricaldevice.Itisalsoaproperlanguagepatternpeoplecreatedinsocialcommunicationinordertomakethecommunicationeffective.Itplaysanimportantroleinourdailylife.Themostimportantsocialfunctionsofeuphemismareevasivefunction,politefunctionandcosmeticfunction.Politicaleuphemismisatypeofeuphemism,soithasthefeatureofeuphemism.Politicaleuphemismisusedwidelybypoliticians,throughwhichtheycandelivertheirrealinformationinamildwaywithoutanyharshness.Thisarticlewillmakeanintroductionoftheorigin,socialfunctionsandtheapplicationofeuphemisms,andthendiscussrespectivelythepoliticaleuphemismsusedininternalandinternationalaspectandtherhetoricalapplicationofpoliticaleuphemisms.
KeyWordssocialfunction;politicaleuphemism;rhetoricalapplication
委婉语起源于民俗禁忌,人们在交际中用来描述不宜直言的人或事物,既是一种修辞手法,又是一种文化现象。委婉语又是人们在社会交际中为谋求理想的交际效果而创造的一种适当的语言形式。它在生活中发挥着十分重要的交际功能。最主要的有避讳功能,礼貌功能,掩饰、美化功能。政治委婉语是委婉语的一个范畴,沿袭了普通委婉语的特征,广为政治家们所用。它使政治家们得以一种暖和、不带任何刺激性的表达方式传递其真正的信息。本文将从委婉语的起源、社会功能、修辞入手,分别阐述政治委婉语的国际国内使用情况和政治委婉语修辞应用。
社会功能;政治委婉语;修辞应用
1.Introduction
1.1Thedefinitionofeuphemism
TheEnglishword“euphemism”derivedfromtheGreekword“euphemismos”,whichmeans“fairspeech”.Theprefix“eu-”means“good,soundingwell”,and“pheme”means“saying”or“speech”.Sotheliteralmeaningof“euphemism”is“tospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner.”InthebookofModernLinguistics,itisdefinedas“amild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirectoroffensive.”1
1.2Theoriginofeuphemism
Totracethebeginningofeuphemisms,wecan’tneglect“taboo”.Inprimitivesociety,peoplecouldn’texplainsuchthingsasdeath,ailmentsandsomesupernaturalphenomena.Theyalsohadconfusionbetweenthenamesofthingsandthethingsthemselves:Thenameisviewedasanextensionofthethings.Justastheidiomsays“Speakofthedevilandheappears.”Naturallythewordsorthephrasesrelatedtotheseunexplainablethingsbecametaboos.
Forordinarypeople,thesafestwaytoavoidmentioningthesethingsthattheyhavetomentioninmanycircumstancesistouseanothername---euphemismstoreplacethetruenameofsuchathing.Inmanycultures,thenamesofgodsanddevilsaretaboos.Inordertoavoidmentioningthemdirectly,peopleuse“goshorgolly”insteadofGodand“dickenoroldNick”insteadofthedevil.Therefore,wecansafelystatethat“theexistenceoftaboowordsortabooideasstimulatesthecreationofeuphemisms”.
Inourmodernsociety,however,thereligiousandsuperstitiousrelicsstillexist.Buttoalargerextent,euphemismismostlymotivatedbypeople’sfearofdeath.Thusitisnowonderthatsuchalargenumberofeuphemismsabout“death”exist:depart,decease,passaway,etc.
Inshort,euphemismoriginatesfromtaboo.Becauseofthepsychologyoffear,peopledarenotorwouldrathernotcallsomethingbynamedirectly.Ifsuchunpleasantthingshavetobementioned,peopleworkoutindirecttermstoreplacethem.Thuseuphemismscomeintobeing.Usingeuphemismsgivespeopleafeelingthattheyaresomewhatdistantfromwhattheyfear,andresortingtoeuphemismsseemstobeaguaranteeoftheirsafety,happiness,healthandgoodluck.
1.3Thesocialfunctionsofeuphemism
Fromtheoriginofeuphemism,wecanseethattheoriginalfunctionofeuphemismistobeusedintalkingabouttaboos.Inourdailylife,therearesometabooedthingsthatarebelievedtobedangeroustocertainindividuals,ortothesocietyasawhole,ortobedisgustingandunpleasantandcausefear.Suchtaboothingsincludedisease,disabilities,death,sex,bodyexcretionandbodyeliminationprocess,etc.Peoplecanuseeuphemismstotalkaboutwhatcannotbetalkedabout.
Withthedevelopmentofoursociety,somenewfunctionscameintobeingduringthecommunicationinthecivilizedsociety.Inourdailycommunication,besides,tabootopics,thereareothersensitiveandunpleasanttopicswhichwedonotfeelliketalkingaboutdirectly,such
asoccupation,appearance,formofaddress,socialstatus,poverty,murder,andsoon.Ifwetalkaboutsuchthingsdirectly,wemayfeelormakeothersfeelembarrassedorunhappy.Suchpsychologyincommunicationresultsinanotherfunctionofeuphemism,thatistoshowpolitenessandconcealfeelings.Forinstance,unemploymentandpovertyareverydreadfulthingsnowadays.Inthemodernwayofthinking,tomentionsomebody’sunemploymentandpovertyistospeakpejorativelyofhiscondition.Sothereplacementsforthemkeepappearing.Themiserablefactofunemploymentissaidtobe“involuntarilyleisured”,“betweenjobs”,etc.Thepoorbecomes“theunderprivileged”,and“thedisadvantaged”.InChinese,wereferto失业as下岗,炒鱿鱼;被裁掉as给优化掉,etc.Andthepooraredescriedas拮据,手头紧,手头不便,囊中羞涩,etc.
Fromtheaboveexampleswecanseethateuphemismscanhelptokeepusmoredistantfromtheunpleasantreality,orinotherwords,theharshtruthhasbeenconcealedtoacertainextent,thatistosay,inreality,euphemismsarealsooftenusedtocoverthetruth.Theeuphemismsrelatedtopoliticsgivenexcellentexplanationforthis.Forexample,theWatergateScandalmadepeoplemoresensitivetopoliticallanguage.Itbecamenecessarytouseeuphemismstomakethesensitivepoliticalconceptssoftenedandvague.Hence,the“Caperincident”substituted“phonestaps”,“gothehangoutroad”for“tellthetruth”,and“stonewall”for“flatlyrefusetocooperate”.2GeorgeOrwellonceillustratedthebitterironyofsuchlinguisticphenomenon,“politicallanguage…isdesignedtomakeliessoundtruthfulandmurderrespectable,andtogiveanappearanceofsoliditytopurewind.”
Basedontheabovedescriptionsaboutthesocialfunctionsofeuphemisms,wecanmakethegeneralizationsasfollows:
(1)Euphemismsnotonlyhelpthespeakeravoidtalkingaboutthedreadfulorembarrassedthingsdirectly,butalsohelpthespeakerorthelistenerfeelrelaxedtalkingaboutthethingsthatmightprobablymakehim/herappeardisgracedorembarrassedifspokendirectly.
(2)Euphemismsareusedtocoverupthetruenatureofevents,deceivingthepublicwithnice-soundingandpseudo-technicalwork,andinthemeanwhileitalsocanhelpsomepeopleavoidtalkingaboutsensitivethingsdirectlysothattheycanescapetheirdueresponsibility,evenpunishment.
1.4.Rhetoricalapplicationofeuphemism
1.4.1.Thedefinitionofrhetoric
Beforewestudytherhetoricalapplicationofeuphemism,itisnecessarytomakeclearwhatisrhetoric.Rhetoricis“theartofusinglanguageimpressivelyandpersuasively,esp.inpublicspeaking.”(OxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-ChineseDictionary,4thedition.)WhetherSpeakingorwriting,onehastogetoneselfacrosseffectively,i.e.,tobeeloquent,accurate,impressive,persuasiveandexpressive.Thestudyofhowtoexpressoneselfeffectively,generallyspeaking,isthemainconcernofrhetoric.
1.4.2.Rhetoricalapplicationofeuphemism
Whenweuseeuphemisms,wealsohavetothinkabouthowtoexpressourideaseffectively.Soweshouldmakeuseoftherhetoricaldevice.3Therhetoricaldevicesfrequentlyusedareasfollowing:
(i)Metaphor
Withthisfigureofspeech,theeuphemismalwaysseemstoberomanticsothatthestyleofthelanguagemaychangealot.Therearenumerouseuphemisticwordsfor“die”inEnglish.Actuallysomeofthemarevividandinformalmetaphor.Forinstance,“gotohislonghome”,“gotosleepforever”and“ceasetothink”,etc.
(ii)Metonymy
Metonymyisafigureofspeechinwhichthenameofonethingisusedtostandforanotherthing.Thetwothingsinvolvedinametonymyarenotofthesamekindbutarecloselyrelated.Euphemismmakesagooduseofit.Forinstance,somepartofhumanbodyareofteneuphemizedwithawholepartforaveryspecialone,whichisnotsuitabletomentiondirectly,suchas“lowerparts”,or“partbelow”for“secretparts”,“upperparts”for“breasts”,etc.
(iii)Synecdoche
Someeuphemismsareinventedbysynecdoche,atropewhichis“afigurebywhichamorecomprehensivetermisusedforlesscomprehensiveorviceversa;aswholeforpartorpartforwhole,agenusforspeciesorspeciesforgenus,etc.”(OxfordDictionary)Forinstance,“Hehasasmoothtongue,”infact,means,“Heistalkative.”
(iv)Personification
Someunpleasantthingsaregivenhumancharacteristicsorhumannamestoachieveavivideffect.Examples:
(1)Personifiedeuphemismsfordrugs:
BigHarryforheroin,MissEmmaformorphine,
MaryJaneformarijuana,etc.
(2)Personifiedeuphemismsforbathroom:
John(Am.E.),jakes,SirJohn;
Mrs.Tones,Aunt(e.g.togotoone’sAunt)(usedbyfemaleonly),etc
(v)Periphrasis
Periphrasis,ascircumlocution,referstoathingnamedinaroundaboutway.Rawsonsuggests“thelongertheeuphemisms,thebetter.”Theyhavemoresyllables,andfrequently,twoormorewordswillbedeployedinplaceofasingleone.Forinstance,“trousers”doesnotsoundwell,so“nethergarments”replacesit.“Fart”istoounpleasanttotheear,sopeoplesayitas“windfrombehind”.
(vi)Understatement
Understatementisafigureofspeechinwhichanideaisdeliberatelyexpressedtooweakly.Itisusedtoplaydownortominimizetheimportanceofsomething.Itisusuallyemployedinthreeways:litotes,meiosisandovertones.Litotesisunderstatementbydenyingthecontraryofthethingbeingaffirmed.Itistheuseofnegativeformforpositiveideaswhenthespeakerwishestoweakenhistoneofcommentonsomething.Forexample,weoftenuse“unwise”insteadof“stupid”;“impolite”insteadof“rude”.
(vii)Irony
Ironyisafigureofspeechinwhichtheintendedmeaningofthewordsusedisthedirectoppositeoftheirusualsense.Forexample,whensomeonehatestheweather,whichspoilshistripandsays,“Whatafineday!”heisironical.
Someintimatefeelingsorbadthingsareexpressedresortingtoirony,afigureofspeechinwhichthemeaningliterallyexpressedistheoppositeofthemeaningindicatedandaimsathumororsarcasmandavoidhurtingothersbydirectexpressions.Incertaincontext,itcanholdthereader’sattentionanddeepenitsimpression,therefore,aPleasanteffectcouldbeachieved.Examples:MinistryofDefenseisinfactreferredto“MinistryofWar”,therealmeaningof“lifeinsurance”is“insurancewhenyouaredead”,and“freedomfighter”issubstitutedfor“terrorists”.
2.Politicaleuphemism
2.1.Introduction
Politicsisafertileareaforthegrowthofeuphemisms,whicharecosmeticinexpressionbutdeceptiveinnature.Euphemismsofthiskindarealwaysusedconsciouslyanddeliberately.Euphemismsusedinpoliticalissuesaremainlyseenintheinternalandinternationalaspects.
2.1.1Internalaspect
Ininternalaspect,politicaleuphemismsareusedforsomesocialproblemssuchaspoverty,unemployment,crimeandracism,andtheactivitiesofthepoliticalorganizationandsoon,whicharecosmetic.
Inordertocovertheproblemsofpovertyandunemployment,etc,thegovernmentcontinuouslycreatedeuphemismsservingforhispoliticalpurpose.Forexample,inAmerica,“thepoor”iscalledas“thedeprived,manofmodestmeans,thelesswelloff”,andthepoorareaas“theinnercity”,etc.And“losejobs”become“betweenjobs”,“fireemployees”become“downsizing”or“RIF(reductioninforce),”lackofjobsecurity”isreferredtoas“jobflexibility”.InBritain,theunemployedcanenjoythehalf-pricefilmticketortheatreticket,onlybecausetheyare“thelessfortunate”.
Whenthewesterncountrieswereinthebeginningof20thcentury,therelationbetweenthelaborersandthecapitalistwasverytense,andstrikebecomeaserioussocialproblem.Inordertocoverthecontradiction,“strike”wasreferredtoas“industrialdispute”,“boycottclasses”as“studentunrest”,“anddrop”as“adjustmentdownward”.4Americaisacountrypoundofitsperfectlawsystem,however,itisalsoacountryfilledwithallkindsofsocialcrime.Inordertoavoidthosedisgracedsayings,euphemismsarefrequentlyused.Forinstance,“steal”iscalledas“tohook,topalm,toworkthehole,towalkawaywith”;“torobbery”isreferredtoas“toclip,toputthearmon,tobreakajug”;“tomurder”isreferredtoas“tocrossout,todisappear,todieinanecktie,togocool”;“punishment”becomes“todropintothebucket,dotime,towalkthelastmile”.5P47Theword“nigger”whichisfullofracialdiscriminationandhasabadconnotationisreplacedby“Negro”andthen“colored”,“black”andnow“Afro-American”.
Somepoliticalorganizationsalsoprefertouseeuphemisms.InAmerica,theactivityoftheFBIorganizationoftenbecriticizedandsatirized.Peopleespeciallydisagreedwiththeirsearchingactivities,whichinvadehumanrights.Inordertocovertheirillegalactivity,theinvestigatorsoftheorganizercreatedandchangedthespeechtheyused,usingaseriesofeuphemisms,suchas“technicaltrespasses,surreptitious,uncontestedphysicalsearches,andwarrantlessinvestigations”,etc,allofwhich,infact,aretheeuphemismof“breakin”.AftertheAmericanpresidentReaganwintheelection,hesetabouttodealwiththecountry’sfinancialproblem.Heappealed“revenueenhancements”.Infact,itis“taxincrease”,whichruncounterto“cuttaxes”hepromisedduringtheelection.Theeuphemismusedherevaguehistrueintentionabstractlyandfuzzily.6
Therearealsosomeotherpoliticaleuphemismsusedtocoverthepoliticalscandals.Forexample,“lie”isreferredtoas“lessthantruthful,prevaricate,inoperative”;“illegal”isreferredtoas“inappropriate”Therearealotofeuphemismsproducedduringthe“Watergatescandal”aboutpresidentNixoninAmericaof20thcentury1970s.Forinstance,“plumber”isreferredtoas“intelligence-stealer”,“eavesdrop”as“intelligence-gathering”,“theschemeofeavesdrop”as“scenario”,andeven“thescandal”became“event”.
Inmodernsociety,socialproblemsarenumerous,soitiswithChina.Toreassureandpacifythepublic,thegovernmentjustmakessuchremarksas“我们绝大多数党员干部是廉洁自律的,这样的人在我们的干部队伍中只是极少数,问题是有的,但成绩是主要的,主流是好的”etc.Fordiplomatictalks,wehavesuchremarksas“双方进行了建设性的会谈,双方就共同关心的问题坦率地交换了意见,总之,双方的会谈是有益的和富有建设性的”etc.Alltheseindicatethatbothsidesarequitefarfromreachingagreementconcerningcertainissues.Thesevagueremarksjustconcealthefactoftruthandservecertainpoliticalpurpose.
Politicaleuphemismalsohaspositivefunction.Ininternalaspect,theuseofpoliticaleuphemismisembodiedinthetalkbetweendifferentparties.Theproperpoliticaleuphemismscanenhancethefriendlyrelationshipandkeepafriendlyatmosphere.Taiwanproblemisatypicalexampleofthiskind.InOctober,1995,whenchairmanJiangZeminwasinterviewedbytheAmericanjournalists,hesaidthat,“我们一贯主张和平统一,‘一国两制’,但是假如台湾岛内分裂主义势力搞‘’我们不排除采取非和平手段的可能性.”The“Anti-secessionLaw”passedin2005,alsoemphasizesthat“必要时将通过’非和平手段’来确保国家的领土完整.”Here,“非和平手段”(non-peacefulmeans)infactisreferredto“war”.Theuseofthesetwopoliticaleuphemismsof“不排除采取非和平手段的可能性”and“必要时将通过’非和平手段’”reflectthatthegovernmentofChinatriedtheirbesttoconsolidatethewholecountrythroughpeacefulway.
2.1.2Internationalaspect
Inthecaseofinternationalaspect,thecosmeticeuphemismsalsocanbeeasilyfoundinpoliticalandmilitaryactivities.Forinstance,“lie”isreferredtoas“terminologicalinexactitude”;“aggression”as“pre-emptiveaction”or“policeaction”;“retreatandtout”as“phasedwithdrawal”;“admitdefeat”as“concedethevictoryto”;“concentrationcamps”as“strategicvillages”or“hamlets”;“bombingandblastingofwholevillages”as“pacificationoftheenemyinfrastructure”or“softeningupofenemyresistance”or“givemassiveairsupport”.Theeuphemismshereareinthetruesenseoftheword“false.”Theyareusedtocoverupthetruenatureofevents,deceivingthepublicwithnice-soundingandpseudo-technicalwords.
Politicaleuphemismsusedinmilitaryactivitycomeintobeingwiththewar.Politiciansinthewesterncountriescalltheinvasivewarusedtotransfertheinternalcontradictionas“preventivewar”or“internationalarmedconflict”;“defeat”as“strategicwithdrawal”;“therefugeetide”duringthewaras“transferofpopulation”.
ThemilitaryactivityofthealliedforcesoftheUSAandBritaininIraqalsoproducedmanypoliticaleuphemisms.Themomentofstartingthewarwascalledas“momentoftruth”;thesloganofthisactionwas“IraqiFreedom”;theillegalandinhumanaggressionbecome“liberation”;“bombing”wascalledas“atargetofopportunity,”thatis,atargetoftheIraqileadership,whichreallymeans“randombombing”.
GovernmentdiscussionoftheVietnamWarwassaturatedwitheuphemisms.Villagerswereburnedandtheinhabitantsimprisoned-thatwere‘pacifications’;saturationbombingwithB-525was‘ordnancedelivery’,destroyingcropswas‘defoliation’;thewaritselfwasnotawarbuta‘conflict’.Theseeuphemismsformaframeworktodeceive,tohidethedirtybusinessofwar.Andexamplesareeverywhere:in1983,aftertheU.S.sentitsarmedforcesintoGrenada,Reaganshowedhisirritationwithreportersattheir‘frequentuseofthewordinvasion.‘This’,hesaid,‘wasarescuemission.’Actually,itwasReaganhimselfwhohadfirstcalleditaninvasion.In1999,theU.S.governmentbombedChineseembassyinYugoslaviaonpurpose,buttoconcealtheirguilt,theycalledthebombing‘friendlyfires’andsoon.
Sometimes,theinvaderevenusesthecosmeticfunctionofeuphemismstoshirkone’sresponsibilityandkeepthemselvesfrombeingcensuredbytheinternationalpublicopinion.Forexample,theJapanesegovernmentwasunwillingtoadmititsheinouscrimeinfrontofitsciviliansafteritssurrenderintheWorldWarTwo.Itevendistortsthehistory.Initshistorytextbooks,“invadeChina”ismisrepresentedas“enterthemainland”,“massivekillinginNanjingcity”whichshockedthewholeworldwascalledas“occupyNanjingcity”.Intheendof20thcentury,NATO,inordertospeeduptheprocessof“theplanofeastward”,takingtheKosovoCrisisasanexcuse,bombedYugoslaviaheavily,whichlastovertwomonths.TheunscrupulousbombingbroughttheYugoslaviansthematerialandmentalloss.WhencountriesallovertheworldblamedtheNATO’s“robberyaction”,inordertoescapefromit,NATOcalledthewaras“humanitarianintervention”.TheAmericanDefenseMinisterWillianCohendeniedthewaragainstYugoslaviaontheNewsReleaseMeeting,andsaideuphemisticallythat,“Wearecertainlyengagedin‘hostilities’;weareengagedin‘combat’.“AmericanSecretaryofstateMadeleineAlbrightevencalledthe“continuousbombing”ofNATOagainstYugoslaviaas“NATO’soperation”,sothattheycouldtaketheeasierwaytotalkaboutthesituationofYugoslaviaconcernedbypeopleallovertheworld.7
Ininternationalaspect,therearealsosomeexamples,whichreflectthepositivefunctionofthepoliticaleuphemisms.Forinstance,“thedevelopingcountry”isreferredto“thepoorcountry”toavoidtheproblemofun-developmentandshowthepoliteness,whichisgoodforthecooperationbetweenthecountriesallovertheworld.Anotherexample,whendifferentpoliticalsystemsarereferred,peopleoftenuse“theeasterncountries“torefertothesocialistcountries,suchasChina,and“thewesterncountries”tothecapitalistcountries,suchasAmerica,soastosoftenandavoidtheconflict,andkeepaharmoniousatmospherebetweenthecountries.
Wecanalsoseetheuseofpoliticaleuphemismsusedforpolitenessfromthereportsabout“NuclearWeaponProbleminKoreanPeninsula”.ThespeakerofAmericanWhiteHouseSteveMcClarenonceemphasizedonaNewsReleaseMeetingthat,“theAmerica’sattitudewouldneverbechanged,thatis,wewillcontinuetolookfordiplomaticresolutioncooperatingwiththeneighborcountriesofKorean,butatthesametime,westillkeepalltheotheroptionalplans.”RichardPerle,thehigh-gradeconsultantofAmericanDefenseDepartment,whowasvisitingMoscowatthattime,whenhewasinterviewedbythelocalTVprogramaboutNuclearWeaponProbleminKoreanPeninsula,hesaid,“Idon’tthink(America)wouldsolvetheproblemthroughuseofforce,butnoonecanensurethatitisimpossibletouseforce.Wearemakingourendeavortosolvetheproblem,andaretryingtomakeKoreanstopitsnuclearplanwithoutconsideringusingforce.”InfaceofAmerica’sbeatingaroundthebush,Koreanreliedthat,“IfAmericaattackKorean,KoreanpeoplearmycertainlywillgivetheAmericanarmy‘theruthlesspunishment’.”Inthediplomaticspeech,althoughthetwosideopposedeachotherwithequalharshness,expressedeachother’sfirmattitude,theystilltriedtoavoidtalkingabout“war”directly,sothattheycanremaintheroomforpeacesolutionthroughpoliticalanddiplomaticdevices,soasnottobefallenintothepassivesituation.8
Fromalltheexamplesabove,wecanconcludethattherearetwomainfeaturesofthecommunicationofpoliticaleuphemisms.
(1)Todisguise:Theuseofsuchpoliticaleuphemismshelpsgovernmentbeautifythefact,andpreventspeoplefromtakinganyanti-governmentaction.Theseeuphemismsformaframeworktodeceive,tohidethedirtybusinessofwar.
(2)Tobepolite:Itwasusedtomaintainthefriendlyrelations,whicharerequiredforsmoothandeffectivecommunication.Thepurposeofsocialinteractionistopromotethefriendshipbetweenthespeakersandtherefore,everytimewhenonespeaks,hehastoconsiderwhetherwhathesaysislikelytomaintain,improve,ordamagethefriendship.
3.Rhetoricalapplicationofpoliticaleuphemism
Politicaleuphemism,asanimportanttypeofeuphemism,alsousestherhetoricaldevicestomakethecommunicationeffectively.9Peopleoftenusethefollowingrhetoricaldevices:
3.1Theuseofunderstatement
Thefeatureofunderstatementisthatthespeechofittouchestheessenceofthematterinaverylittledegree,sothatpeoplewhodon’tknowthetruthortheimplicationcan’tfeeltheseriousnessofthematter.Politicaleuphemismsoftenusetherhetoricdeviceofunderstatement.Therearemanyexamplesofthiskind.Forexample,“poor”isadreadfulwordbothinEnglishandChinese,itmeansthelifeisinadifficultposition,andindicatesthelowsocialposition.Italsoindicatesthegovernmentalinabilitytosolvesocialandeconomicproblems.Inordertocoverupitandmakethepovertyproblemseemtobenotsoserious,government
call“poor”as“needyordisadvantaged”,callthe“slum”as“substandardhousing”,“slumchildren”as“theculturallydifferentchildren”,and“ghetto”isreferredtoas“innercity”.InEnglish,therearenotpoornationsorpoorcountries,butonlybackwardnations,underdevelopednations,developingnationsandemergingnations.TheUNcallsthosepoorcountriesas“less-developednationsorcountries.”
Intheinternationalpoliticalaffairs,especiallyinthemilitaryfield,therearemoreexamplesofthiskind,whichareusedtocovertheessenceofsomedirtymatters.Forexample,MinistryofDefense,infact,isMinistryofWar.Americangovernmentonceuses“OperationSunshine”tocoveritsheinouscrimethattheytooktheexperimentofhydrogenbulletinthePacificOcean.DuringthewarofGulfwar,Americanuse“airoperation”and“groundoperation”insteadof“airstrike”and“groundwar”,asaresult,peoplecouldn’tfeelabouttheterriblenessandcruelnessofthewarfromthewordsdirectly.
3.2.Theuseofperiphrasis
Periphrasisusuallyuseslongphrasesorsentencestomakethelistener’sattentionfarfromthetopic.Politiciansoftenusesomelongerwordstoexpresstheirideas.Becausewhenpeoplewanttodisguisesomefacts,theyoftentakearoundaboutwayoftalk.Thentheymustusemorewords.Expressionsinpoliticalissuesareusuallymadebylongerandmorewordsorphrases.Thetypicalexampleofthiskindisthedifferentexpressionsofthe“WarSyndrome”inthreedifferentperiods.InWorldWarOne,itwas“shellshock”;inWorldWarTwo,itbecame“combatfatigue”;whilein20thcentury1960sthephrasebecamePost-traumaticStressDisorder,usedtodescribethepanicoftheordersoldiersofVietnamWar.Wecan’tseeanythingrelatedtowaratallfromthephrases.Therearesomeotherexamples:inofficialEnglish,governmentuse“intheearlystateoffinalization”insteadof“notyetfinished”;“beeconomicalwithtruth”insteadof“withholdthetruth”;“HigherEducationContributionScheme”insteadof“EducationalLevy”.And“fire”issaidas“givethesack”,“imprisonment”canbecalledas“liveatthegovernment’sexpense”,“poor”is“economicallydisadvantagedindividuals”,“weaponequipmentdevelopment”iscalledas“reconnaissanceforcessweeping”,“drop”as“adjustmentdownward”.
3.3.Theuseofirony
Ironyisafigureofspeechinwhichthemeaningliterallyexpressedistheoppositeofthemeaningindicatedandaimsathumororsarcasmandavoidshurtingothersbydirectexpressions.Thatistosayironyiswhatwesaidistheoppositeofwhatwemeant.Throughirony,lettingthelistenerguessandgraduallyunderstandwhatthespeakerreallyintendtodo,wecanavoidtomakethelistenerembarrassed.Throughit,wecannotonlycoverwhatisnotconvenienttosaydirectly,butalsoincreasesthehumor.Forexample:
Nixon’sproposalshavebeenhailedaswoundifnotoriginal.Butthisappraisalofhisownstewardshipsometimesseemsmoregenerousthancandid.
Theword“generous”isoriginallyusedasacommendatorywordtopraisesomebody.Itsusingherehastheeffectofirony,whichintendstocriticizethatthepresidentexaggeratedsomethingandwasnotmodest.10
4.Conclusion
Thepresentpaperhasfocusedonthepoliticaleuphemismusedininternalandinternationalaspectsanditsrhetoricalapplication.Itwouldbeabeneficialguideforthelanguagelearnerstounderstandthecultureandthepsychologies.Inaddition,onlywhenlearningwhattopicsorsubjectsarerequiredtobeeuphemisticallydescribed,canweavoidbeingmisunderstoodindealingwithdiplomaticaffairs.Nowadays,moreandmorepeoplepayattentiontotheresearchonpoliticaleuphemism.Bystudyingpoliticaleuphemism,wecannotonlyenlargeourknowledge,butalsograspthesocialpsychologyoftheuserusingpoliticaleuphemisms,andthenunderstandanduseitproperly.
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