英语委婉语使用
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AbstractTheword“euphemism”comesfromtheGreek,eu--means“good”,and–pheme-,“speech”or“saying”,andtogetheritmeansliterally“tospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner”.Euphemism,asaculturalphenomenonaswellasalinguisticconcept,hasattractedpeople’sattentionforalongtime.Ithaslongbeenatopicofmuchinterest.Generallyspeaking,peoplewouldusemoreeuphemismsincommunicatingwiththeoppositesex;womenwouldusemorethanmenwould;olderpeoplewouldusemorethanyoungergenerations.Peoplewouldmoreuseeuphemismsin"power"relationsthanincloserelations.Peoplewithhighereducationwouldusemoreeuphemisms.Theabovefactors:age,sex,socialstatus,education,etc.donotworkseparately.Incommunicating,theyareinterlacedwitheachotherandguideourchoiceofeuphemisms.Whethertouseeuphemismsortaboowordsalsodepends,toalargeextent,ontheattitudesofparticipants(particularlyspeakers)andthepurposeofconversations.Thearticleconsistsofsixparts.Partoneexplainswhatthemeaningofeuphemismis.ParttwoissayingtheCooperativePrincipleinbriefly.CooperativePrinciple,thecornerstonetheoryofpragmatics,isoneofthemainprinciplesthatguidepeople’scommunication.TheCooperativePrincipleanditsmaximscanexplainwhattheliteralmeaningisanditsrealintentionincommunicationandensurethatinanexchangeofconversation.Partthreepresents,theformationeuphemism,namely,formalinnovation,semanticinnovation,rhetoricaldevices,andgrammaticalways.Partfourdiscussesthecommunicativefunctionofeuphemismissubstitution,politeness,disguise,defense,etc.Partfiveservesasthemainbodyofthisarticle.Generallyspeaking,euphemismsviolatetheQuality,QuantityandMannerMaximoftheCPduetodifferentreasonslikesubstitution,disguiseetc.AndbasicallyeuphemismsobservetheRelationMaxim.Fromtheanalysis,itcanbealsofoundthatsometimesaneuphemismcanberegardedasviolationoftwomaximsoftheCPatthesametime.Partsixconcludesthewholearticle.
KeyWordsCooperativePrinciple;Euphemism;Communicativefunction
委婉语(euphemism)一词起源于希腊语。Eu意思是“好的”，pheme意思是“话语”，因此字面上的意思是说好听的话或用礼貌的方式说话。委婉语是一个语言学概念，同时也是一种文化现象，长久以来一直受到人们的关注。总体上讲人们在与异性进行言语交际时，要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉语，女性要比男性更多地使用委婉语，年长的人要比年青的人更多地使用委婉语。人们在“权势关系”的语境中往往要比在“亲密关系”的语境中更多地使用委婉语。受教育程度越高的人，越注重自己的言谈，因而更多地使用委婉语。上述因素年龄、性别、社会地位、教育等并不孤立存在，在交际中，他们交织在一起决定着委婉语的使用。是否使用委婉语还要考虑说话者的态度和交谈的目的。文章由六个部分组成。第一部分解释了什么是委婉语。第二部分简单列出合作原则的各项原则。它作为语用学的理论基石之一，是指导人们语言交际的原则之一。它可以很好地解释话语的字面意义和实际意义的关系，这对于交际委婉语显得尤为重要。第三部分说明委婉语的构成可以有很多种方式：形式变化，语义变化，修辞手段和语法手段。第四部分阐述了交际委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等功能。第五部分是文章的主体，并说明委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等原因主要违反了合作原则中的质、量和方式三个次则，基本上是遵循了合作原则中的相关原则。第六部分总结全文。
关键字合作原则;委婉语;交际功能
1.Introduction
IntheOxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish–ChineseDictionarytheexplanationofEuphemismis"(exampleofthe)useofpleasant,mildorindirectwordsorphrasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones"1.AndintheLongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglishtheexplanationofEuphemismis"(anexampleof)theuseofapleasanter,lessdirectnameforsomethingthoughttobeunpleasant"2.Forexample,themanwhowantstoustocallhima“sanitationengineer”insteadofa“garbageman”ishopingwewilltreathimwithmorerespectthanwepresentlydo.
"Theword''''euphemism''''comesfromtheGreekeumeaning''''good''''andphememeaning''''speech''''or''''saying'''',andthusmeansliterally''''tospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner''''"3.Euphemismshavevariousreasonsforexistence.Theyconcealthethingspeoplefearthemost—death,thedead,thesupernatural.Theycoverupthefactsoflife—ofsexandreproductionandexcretion—whichinevitablyremindeventhemostrefinedpeoplethattheyaremadeofclay,orworse.Theyarebelovedbyindividualsandinstitutions(governments,especially)thatareanxioustopresentonlythehandsomestpossibleimagesofthemselvestotheworld.Andtheyareimbeddedsodeeplyinourlanguagethatfewofus,eventhosewhopridethemselvesonbeingplainspoken,evergetthroughadaywithoutusingthem.Butsomepeoples
tillmistaketheeuphemismsintheconversationbytheCooperativeprinciple.ViolatingtheCP,peoplealsocancontinuetheconversationwitheuphemisms,whichmaketheauthorinterestinattitudesofparticipantsandthepurposeofconversation.Thatisourbodytoday.
2.Formationofeuphemisms
2.1Formalinnovation
Toavoidtheemergenceofcertainletterorsoundmayachievetheeffectofeuphemizing.Theformalinnovationcanhideaudio-visuallythosewordswedon’twanttosayorweshouldn’tsaysoastoachievebetteroutcomeincommunication.
2.1.1Abbreviation
AbbreviationistheshorteningofawordandmaybeseenintheuseoftheBritishexpressionLADIESforladies’room.TherealsoisGENTSforgentlemen’sroom.
2.1.2Apocopation
Apocopationisanotherformofabbreviationapparentintheuseofvampforvampireheremeaningaseductivewoman.Andlavisforlavatory;homoisforhomosexual;cocaisforcocaine;braisforbrassiere.
2.1.3Initialing
Initialingistheuseofacronymsinsteadoftheircomponentpartsasin"JCfor“JesusChrist”,BMforbowelmovement"4,"W.Cforwatercloset,B.Oforbodyodor,V.Dforvenerealdisease,AIDSforacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome,SARSforsevereacuterespiratorysyndrome"5.
2.1.4Backforming
Backformingisthesubstitutionforonepartofspeech(usedinshortenedform)foranother,asin"burgle(rob)whichisderivedfrom''''burglar''''"6.
2.1.5Reduplication
Reduplicationistherepetitionofasyllableorletterofaword.Particularlycommoninchildren’sbathroomvocabulary,itsubstitutes"pee-peefor''''piss'''',poo-poofor''''bowelmovement''''"7.
2.1.6Blendword
Ablendwordisaformofphoneticdistortioninwhichtwoormorewordsaresqueezedtogetherbothorthographicallyandphonetically.Anexampleofthisis"gezundaforachamberpot,atermderivedfromthefactthatthisobject''''goesunderthebed''''"8.
2.1.7Diminutive
Adiminutiveistheformationofanewtermbynickingorshorteninganameandaddingasuffixindicatingaffectionorsmallness."Heinie,forexample,isthediminutiveof''''hindend''''andreferstothebuttocks"9.
2.2Semanticinnovation
2.2.1Borrowing
Mostobviously,euphemismsmaybeformedbyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages—termsthatarelessfreightedwithnegativeassociations.Thus,weuseGreekandLatinexpressionsformanybodilypartsandfunctions.Wehavecoinedhalitosis(badbreath)fromtheLatin(halitus)for“breath”andwehavesubstitutedmicturitionforthemorevulgarIndo-European“Piss”.Inaddition,Englisheuphemismsalsoborrowedalotofscientificoracademicterms,whicharebelievedtobemoreeuphemisticandobjectivethantheusualterms,suchasmagneticfor“sexy”andperspirefor“sweat”andsoon.
2.2.2Widening
Euphemismsmaybemadebyasemanticprocesscalledwidening.Whenaspecifictermbecomestoopainfulorvivid,wemoveupintheladderofabstraction.Inthisway,cancerbecomesgrowthandagirdlebecomesafoundation.Sometimes,inadditiontowideningwedividethenegativeconnotationsofasingledirecttermbetweentwoormorewords.Insteadofsaying“syphilis”openly,wespeakofasocialdisease.
2.2.3Semanticshift
Alliedtothephenomenonofwideningisthatofsemanticshift.Thisisthesubstitutionofthewhole,orasimilargenerality,forthespecificpartwedonotchoosetodiscuss.Wemaycreatesuchmetonymies(substitutionsofthewholeforthepart)asrearendfor“buttocks”.Sometimes,asintheexpressions"tosleepwith/gotobedwithsomeone"10,weusewordsnamingthelargereventinplaceofmoreprecisereferencestothesexualrelationsthatarepartoftheprocess.
2.3Rhetoricaldevices
2.3.1Metaphor
Euphemismsmaybemadebyaprocesscalledmetaphoricaltransfer,thecomparisonofthingsofonekindtothingsofanother.Theeuphemismschosenareoftenromanticizing,poeticizingandsofteningoftheoriginalwordslike"gotosleep;gotohislonghome;behomeandfree;restinpeace;beatrest;gotoHeaven/Paradise;joinone''''sancestors;begatheredtoone''''sfathers;jointheimmoralsfordie"11,shockforrandombombing,constructivedestructionforseveredamage,havearoadtotravelforhavealongtimetoreachanagreementandetc..
2.3.2Aposiopesis
InEnglish,thereisakindofrhetoriccalledaposiopesisthatcanalsoactasthewayofeuphemizing.Whenwethinkweshouldnotsaysomethingundercertainconditions,wesuddenlystopaswhenwesaysomeoneisout(ofwork);sheisexpecting(ababy);"totakeprecautions(againstpregnancy);todepart(fromthisworld)"12
2.3.3Analogy
Analogycanoftenbeseeninthevocab
ulariesofwork.Atendencytoelevatemenialorunskilledjobs—sometimessubstitutingagrandtitleforalargesalary—canmakeoffalsmelllikearosebypromotinggarbagementosanitationengineersoreventowaste--reductionmanagers.Byimplication,theybecomehighlytrainedtechniciansandexecutives.Health-clubstaffsbecomefitnesscoordinators,andsenatorsnowhavetheirshoesshinedbythefootwearmaintenanceengineer,formerlytheSenatebootblack.Evenifyouarenotagovernmentofficial,yourjanitorisnowyourbuidingmaintenanceengineer.
2.3.4Understatement
Understatementdisplayspeople’sdesiretomaketheirlanguagelesspainfulanddirect.Sothereisneveranuglywomaninthisworld,sheisatleastplain.Teachersonlytellparentsthattheirchildisabitslowforhisage,notretarded.Andcallseniorcitizenforoldperson."Takeother''''sthingswithoutpermission"canbeinsteadof"steal".
2.3.5Periphrasis
Periphrasisisjustbeatingaroundthebush.Peopleoftensayeuphemismsareweaselwords,becausepeoplenevercallaspadeaspadewhenusingeuphemisms.Fartisnotpleasanttoear,sopeoplecallitwindfromthebehind.Someonewantsyoutogoaway,butheonlysayshewillcallyourcarriageforyou.Someonelivingatthegovernmentexpensemaymakeyouenvyhim,butactuallyheisinprison."ManysayingsaboutgoingtoWCmakeagooduseofperiphrasislikewashone’shands,powderone’snose,spendapenny.Sodothe''''drop''''for''''adjustmentdownward''''13"
2.4.Grammaticalways
AccordingtoBolinger,"Euphemismisnotrestrictedtothelexicon.Therearegrammaticalwaysoftoningsomethingdown”.Therefore,euphemizingshouldnotbelimitedtolexicalways;itcanalsobeachievedbygrammaticalways.
2.4.1Tense
InEnglish,tensecanlendalittleeuphemisticcolortotheexpressionsforsomethingundesired.Especiallywhenpeopleusewant,hope,thinkandwonderorwordslikethattheymayalsomakeuseofthetensetosoundmoreeuphemistically.Forexample,Iwonderedifyouwouldmindhelpingme?or"Iwonderedifyoucouldhelpme?"14.Askinghelpthisway,peoplewon’tfeelsoembarrassediftheywererefused.
2.4.2Syntacticalnegation
Thismethodcanlessonthepainfulimpactofthelanguagethatisnotwelcomed.Wesaysheisnotpretty(Actuallysheisveryugly),butthatisacceptable,becausenotprettydoesnotequalto“ugly”,itcouldbe“plain”too.Notprettyhasawiderrangeofmeaningthanugly.Similarusagesareasthefollowing:Idon’tthink,Iamafraid,Iamnotsure,Idon''''tlike,etc.
2.4.3Firstpersonalpronouns
Theuseoffirstpersonalpronounslikewe,ours,us,etc,canalsomakeourspeechessoundmoreeuphemistic.Youwouldfeelmorewelcomedifyouusedweorourquiteoften.Ifadoctorsaidtoyouhowdowefeeltoday,youwouldfeelverywarmandcomfortable,becauseitmakesyouthinkthatthiskinddoctortakesyourillnessasmutualconcern.
3Communicativefunctionsofeuphemisms
Languageisforcommunication,whereaseuphemismsmayleadtobettercommunication.Usingeuphemismscanavoidbeingpresumptuousinlanguagecommunication.Whenwehavetotouchsometopicsthatareunpleasant,wetendtochoosemoreeuphemisticexpressionstorefertothosepainfultopicssoasnottohurtthehearer’sfeeling.WecanfindthetheoreticalfoundationforthismotivationinLeech’sPolitenessPrinciple.Euphemismsjustminimizetheimpolitenessandmaximizethepolitenessincommunication.ThefunctionsofeuphemismsareinagreementwiththoseofPolitenessPrincipletoo,astheybothoffermorebenefittothehearerandleavemorecosttothespeaker,withthepurposethatbothofthetwosideswillfeelrespectedandhavefavorableimpressionofeachother.Aspolitenessisusuallyregardedasthemanifestationofhumancivilization,euphemismisoneofthemosteffectivestrategiestodisplaypolitenesswhilemodulatinginterpersonalrelationshipinhumancommunication.
3.1Substitution
AccordingtothedefinitionsofeuphemismandweknowthatagreatnumberofEnglisheuphemismsserveasthesubstitutionsforverbaltaboos.Thetermtaboo(tameaning“mark”,boomeaning“exceedingly”)ofPolynesianorigindenotesanythinglinguisticandnonlinguistic,whichisprohibitedorforbidden.Tabooreferstothesituationinwhichawordornamecanbeusedinacommunityonlyunderspecialconditions,whetheronlybycertainpersonsoronlyincertaincircumstances.Justasviolatingaculturaltaboocanbequiteoffensive,soisitwithaverbaltabooinpressconferences.The“word”hasbeenandcontinuestobeinmostsocietiesperceivedasapowerfulinstrumentthatmayevokeevilspirits,makebadthingshappenandinstigatetoviolence
andrevolutionandnumerousotheractivities.Whiletabooofwordsoccurswhenaparticulartopicisconsideredvalidfordiscussion,euphemisticexpressionortermsarerequired.Sodiplomaticeuphemismshaveaveryseriousreasonforbeing.Theycanconcealthethingspeoplefearmost—death,thedeadorthesupernatural.Euphemismscanalsoeliminateunhappiness,embarrassmentandfearetc.soastorelievepeoplepsychologically.
3.2Politeness
Politenessisanotherveryimportantfunctionthateuphemismsserveinsociallife."Someoftheeuphemismsareusedtoavoidcrudenessandindecencyforthesakeofapoliteconversation."15GriceformulatedCooperativePrincipleofutteranceinwhichtheMaximofMannerwasdefinedas“Beperspicuousandspecific;Toavoidobscurity;Toavoidambiguity;Tobebriefandtobeorderly.”TheroundaboutnatureofeuphemismsgoesagainsttheMaximofManner,whichcanonlybefairlyexplainedwellbyLeech’sPolitenessPrinciple“ApprobationMaxim:minimizedispraiseofother,maximizepraiseofother”.Inotherwords,euphemismsaretominimizeimpoliteexpressionsandmaximizepoliteexpressions.
3.3Disguise
Besidesthetwofunctionsofeuphemismsmentionedabove,thereisstillanotheronemoreimportantfunctionatworkineuphemisticcommunication,namely,theDisguiseFunction.Herewemeanthatbecauseofthevaguenessofeuphemisms,ithasbecomeaveryimportanttoolforpoliticalleadersorthediplomatsorstatesmentodistortthefactsorandpresentafalsepictureofpeaceandprosperityandtobeautifywhatevertheauthorityhavedone.Forexample,intheIraqWar,theyuse“OperationIraqiFreedom”forbeautifyingtheirmilitaryinvasion,“possiblemovement”referstomilitaryattack,“airoperation”or“airstrikes”forairattack,“enterthewar”toshowtheirreluctancetofightthewaretc.andwemayfindmanysuchkindoftheseeuphemismsinpressconferences.Themostimportantandultimatefunctionorpurposeoftheuseofdiplomaticeuphemismsinpressconferencesistodisguiseorbeautifytheirinvasiveessenceorotherevilactionsortheseparationofwordsfromtruth.InAmericanandBritishsocietiesnowadays,diplomaticeuphemismsarealwayspurposelydevisedtodisguisescandalsinwarsandpolitics,deliberatelyinventedtobeautifylowlyoccupationsandexcessivelyinflatedtopromotesalesinadvertisement.
4.TheCooperativePrinciple
Beforegoingon,welookattwoexamples,asfollows:
(1)"A:Canyoutellmethetime?
B:Well,themailhasalreadycome.
(2)A:AreyougoingtoJohn’sbirthdayparty?
B:I’veheardMaryisgoing."16
Itseemstherearesomemistakeintheconversations.Butinfact,itiscorrect.TheCooperativePrinciplewillhelpusunderstandmore.
TheCooperativePrincipleisasfollows:"Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged."17
AccordingGrice,Cooperativeprincipleisclassifiedintofourcategories:quantity,quality,relationandmanner.Thecategoryofquantityrelatestothequantityofinformationtobeprovided,andunderitfallthefollowingmaxims：
4.1ThemaximofQuality:
"Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue,.specifically:
(i)donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.
(ii)donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence"18
4.2ThemaximofQuantity:
"(i)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequiredforthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange
(ii)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired"19
4.3ThemaximofRelation:
"Makeyourcontributionrelevant."20
4.4ThemaximofManner:
"Beperspicuousandspecifically:
(i)avoidobscurityofexpression.
(ii)avoidambiguity.
(iii)bebrief
(iv)beorderly."21
Fromwhatmentionedabove,wemayknowthattheCooperativePrincipleenablesoneparticipantinaconversationtocommunicateontheassumptionthattheotherparticipantisbeingcooperative.Thesefourmaximsformanecessarypartofthedescriptionoflinguisticmeaninginthattheyexplainhowitisthatthespeakersoften“meanmorethantheysay”intheircommunications.
"Wemaydecidetowithholdwhateverinformationwepossess:’Nocomment!’Wemayinadvertentlyinfringeamaximorwecansecretlyviolateamaxim—e.g.AcouldmaliciouslyandfalselytellBthatJanethadwalkedintheoppositedirectionfromthepostoffice.or–moreimportantly–wecanmakeablatantshowofbreakingoneofthemaxims(Gricetermsthisfloutingamaxim),inordertoleadtheaddresseetolookforacovert,impliedmeaning."22.Forexamples,
(3)"Atthetimeofrecording,allthemembersofthecastweremembersofTheBBCPlayers.(Implicature:OneormoreofthemarenolongermembersofTheBBCPlayers.)"23
Generallyspeaking,"inGrice’sanalysis,thespeaker’sfloutingofamaximcombinedwiththehearer’sassumptionthatthespeakerhasnorreallyabandonedtheco-operativeprincipleleadstoanimplicature"24.Onethingthatdeservesourattentionisthatthefourmaxims,expressedintheimperativemoodhavesometimesbeenmisunderstoodasinstructionsforaspeakertobehaveinconversation.
5.PossibleviolatingtheCooperativePrincipleintheuseofeuphemisms
Inthelightoftheforegoingliteraturereviewandthetheoreticalbases,weknowthateuphemismsoreuphemisticexpressionsareimportantandpeopleoftenusethemincommunication.Inreality,itcanbefoundthatthesediplomatsandstatesmenetc.alsouseeuphemismsoreuphemisticexpressionsinthequestion-answerpatterns.Thesestatesmenmakesharpthingsorunpleasantthingssoundpleasantetc.otherwisetheuseofeuphemismsmayevencausemisunderstandings.SothenextwewilltalkaboutcommunicationwiththetheoriesofCooperativePrinciple.Forexample,tobespecific,diplomaticeuphemismsofpressconferencesaremainlychosenasthesubstitutionofanagreeableorinoffensivewordorexpressionforonethatisharsh,indelicateorunpleasanttotheotherside.Theyarechosenfromboththelexicalapproachandtherhetoricalapproach.
Incommunicationlikethequestion-answerpatternsinpressconferences,generallypeopleorparticipantsarerequiredtoobservetheCPinordertomaketheirconversationmovesforwardsmoothlyandsuccessfully.Butinreality,inordertomeetacertaincommunicativeneed,especiallyinpressconferencesconcerningdiplomacy,actuallypeopleseldomspeaksbyalwaysfaithfullyobservingthesefourmaximsoftheCP.ThereforeGricehimselfalsosuggests5waysparticipantscandealwiththesemaxims.First,speakerscanstraightforwardlyfollowthemaxims,thatis,theycanspeakthetruthwhilegivingjustenoughrelevantinformationinaclear,unambiguous,succinctandorderlymanner.Manypeopledojustthatmostoftime.Second,someonemayviolateamaxim,asyouwoulddoifyoutoldadeliberatelie.Athirdthingthatcanhappenisthataspeakercan‘optout’ofamaxim,thisseemstobeanuncommonoccurrence.Thefourthpossibilityisthemaximclash;casesinwhichyouwouldhavetoviolateonemaximinordertofulfillanother.Andperhapsthisisthemostcaseofviolationofthemaximsinpressconferences.Thefifthandmostintriguingwaytodealwiththemaximsofconversationistofloutoneofthem.Whenamaximisflouted,aspeakerdoesn''''tobservethemaxim,butcannotbeaccusedofviolatingiteither,becausethetransgressionissoflagrantthatitistotallyobviousthatthespeakerknowsheorsheisnotobservingitandrealizeseveryoneelseintheconversationknowsittoo.
TheexistenceofthemaximsoftheCPmakestheconversationalimplicaturepossibleespeciallyontheconditionslikeinpressconferencesetc..Conversationalimplicatureallowsaspeakerofanysideinpressconferencestoconveymeaningbeyondwhatisliterallyexpressed.Speakersinpressconferencescanoftenuseeuphemismsoreuphemisticexpressionstoproduceconversationalimplicatureormoremeaningthatthehearerscanalsofigureoutitsrealintentionsratherthantheliteralmeaningbyviolatingsomecertainmaxims.
5.1.ViolationofQualityMaxim
"ViolationofQualityMaximmeansbysayingthingsthatarenottrueorthefactandmakingirresponsibleandinsincereremarksbythespeakers.Itcanproducesomespecificalcontent:humor,ordisguisetheintentionsuchasMinistryofDefenceforMinistryofWar,lifeinsurenceforinsurancewhenyouaredead,freedomfightersforterrorists."25Franklyspeaking,euphemismshaveatendencytoviolateQualityMaximinordertoexpressunpleasantthingsorideasetc.inanindirect,roundaboutandpleasantway.Thereforeifhearerswanttoknowtherealintentions,theyshouldinfertheconversationalimplicaturefromtheillocutionarymeaningbasedonthespecialcontext.Moreoverhyperboleandunderstatementalsodon''''tobeytheQualityMaxim,forallthesecontributionaretrue.Letuslookatsomeexamplesasfollows:
(4)Q:BritainandFrancebothputtroopsonstandbyalert…forpossiblemovementintoKosovo.While…hastheU.S.putanyunitsonstand-byforapossiblemovementtoKosovo?
A:Inviewofthefactthat…ourforcesremainattheircurrentstateofreadiness.There…increasethatstateofalertnessatthispoi
nt.Obviously…onshortstand-by…airoperations,would….
IntheaboveQ-Apatternsofthetranscripts,wecanseediplomaticeuphemismslike“possiblemovement”,“attheircurrentstateofreadiness”and“airoperation”etc.areusedinpressconferencesthatviolatetheQualityMaxim.Fromthespecificcontextweknowthathere“possiblemovement”mainlymeans“possiblemilitaryattack”,“attheircurrentstateofreadiness”refersto“attheircurrentstateoffighting”and“airoperation”refersto“airwar”or“airfight”etc..StillwecanfindmoreexamplesviolatingQualityMaximoftheCPinpressconferenceslike“MinistryofDefense”for“MinistryofWar”,“enteringintoKosovo”or“gointoKosovo”for“invadeKosovo”or“invasion”and“information”for“militaryintelligence”andalso“activedefense”for“attack”etc..Bysayingthat,theauthoritycandistortthefactstosomeextentandalsoreduceitsbadimpressionsonthepublic.Hencetheauthoritycanpresentafalsepicturetothepublicandtobeautifyordisguisewhatevertheyhavedone.
5.2ViolationofQuantityMaxim
"ViolationofQuantityMaximisbyprovidingnon-informativeinformationorbyeitherprovidinglessormoreinformationthanactuallyneeded.Strictlyspeaking,acronymandabbreviation,twomainwaysoftheformationofeuphemism,arethetwomainwaysofviolatingtheQuantityMaxim.Forexample,executeisforexecutedeathpenalty,IneedtogoisforIneedtogotothelavatory,commfuforcompletemonumentalmilitaryfuckup,S.O.Sforson-of-a-bitch."26SomeeuphemismsoreuphemisticexpressionsarecreatedbycontributinglessinformationtoviolatetheQuantityMaximinordertomakeunpleasant,rudeoroffensivewordssoundmorepleasant,politeandelegant.LetushavealookatsomeexpressionsusedinpressconferencesviolatetheQuantityMaximoftheCP.
(5)Q:GeneralNaumannsaid…militarytargets?
A:(Cohen):AsweindicatedtheACTORDwas…Serbianforceswerereallyposingaseriousthreattoseveral…thecoldorfromstarving.ThatACTORDwas…innocentpeople.ThatACTORDremains…GeneralNaumannhasreferredto.
Letushavealookatanotherexample:
(6)Q:General,…Couldyou…intheeventofaconflictand…intermsofaliaisonwiththeNGOsand…?
A:Well,theirroleis…civil-militaryaffairsorganizations,…intheCENTCOMtheater…
Intheabovetwoquestion-answerpatternsinpressconferenceswemaysaythatthesediplomaticeuphemismsviolatetheQuantityMaximbecausetheyfailedtogiveustherightamountofinformationweneededorwemayalsosaythattheyprovidedlessinformation.Byusingtheseeuphemismsthespeakerslikethediplomatsandstatesmenetc.canavoidmentioningtheseunpleasanttermsornotionslikecentralcommandandactivationorderetc.inpressconferences.
Amongtheeuphemismsusedinpressconferences,wemaystillfindthatsomeoftheeuphemismscanberegardedasaspecialcasethatviolateboththeQualityMaximandtheQuantityMaximetc..HenceinabroadsensewemaysaythateuphemismsthatviolatetheQualityMaximcanalsoberegardedasaspecialcasethatviolatetheQuantityMaximbecausethetwomaximsarecloselyrelated.IfaeuphemismviolatesQualityMaxim,italsoviolatesQuantityMaximtoacertainextent.Forexample,theeuphemismslike“possiblemovement”for“possiblemilitaryattack”or“possiblewar”;“broughttheworldtogether”mainlyreferstothosecountriesledbytheUSA.Hencefromthispointofviewwemaythateuphemismslike“possiblemovement”,“broughttheworldtogether”etc.notonlyviolatetheQualityMaximbutalsoviolatetheQuantityMaximbecausetoacertainextenttheydistortthefactsandprovidelessinformationthanpeopleactuallyneed.
5.3EuphemismsandtheRelationMaxim
AswementionedbeforethattheMaximofRelationrefersto“Berelevant”andviolationofRelationMaximmeansthattheutteranceofaspeakerisirrelevanttotheconversationorthespecificcontextforsomereasonsorsomepurposes.SometimeswemayfindEnglisheuphemismsaretouseirrelevantutterancesonthesurfacetoexpresssomethingthatthespeakerswanttosayandcannotsay.InfacttheimpliedmeaningoftheutterancesisrelevantpartiallybecausetheformationofEnglisheuphemismsabidestheseformativeprincipleslikepleasant-soundprincipleetc..Forexample,
(7)"Iapproachedherveryhesitatly.
"Wanttocomeandplay?"
Piquettelookedatmewithasudduenflashofscorn.
"Iain''''takid,"shesaid.
Wounded,Istampedangrilyaway..."27
Here,"Iain''''takid"seemsnorelationtothisconversation.Butthereimplicaturemeaningisonlykidsplay--Iain''''tkid--Iwon''''tplaywithyou.So,itisindirectrefuseofcommunicating.InEnglish“topassaway”isusedinaeuphemisticsensefor“todie”now.Thedenotationof“topassaway”is“togoawayforatime”;while“todie”means“togoawayforever”.“Todie”iseuphemizedas“togoaway”byviolatingtheRelationMaximonthesurface,infact,boththetwophraseshavetherelevantmeaningto“togoaway”.Theirdifferenceliesonlyinthetime,oneisforaperiodoftime,theotherisforever.Sowhenthespeakeruse“topassaway”toreplace“todie”,thehearersmayinfertheconversationalimplicatureof“todie”fromtherelevantmeaning“togoaway”.Sowithtimegoeson,itisnowalmostusedasafixedusagefor“todie”inalmostallthecircumstances.
5.4ViolationofMannerMaxim
ViolationofMannerMaximmeansgivingobscureandambiguousinformationetc..Sometimesunderthecommunicativecircumstances,thespeaker,inordertoavoidmentioningunpleasantandembarrassedthingsinadirectway,saysomethingobscurelyandambiguously,thenthehearersshouldcarefullyinfertheconversationalimplicatureofthespeakerandwhatistheirrealintentionsandmeaningaccordingtothespecificcontext.SowemayfindmanyeuphemismstendtoviolatetheMaximofMannersoastoachievethemild,agreeable,roundaboutandpleasant-soundeffects.
WecanalsotakethefollowingasexamplestoillustratehoweuphemismsviolatetheMannerMaxim."Aeducatorcannotsayastudentislazy,idle,stupid,orclever.Insteadofthemiseducationallyandsociallydisadvantagedgroups,underachieved,thoseonthelowerendoftheability-scale,highverbal-abilitysubjects,disadvantagedhomeenviornments,underprivilegedchild."28Obviously,thesewordsviolatesMannerMaximofbeingbrief.
Anotherexample,"Perhapsyouhadbettergetyouraffairsinorder."Thisisanotionofdeathfromthedoctor.it''''swordybutnotunnecessary.one-way-ticketisfordie.Itreflectone''''sexperienceandcognition.
6.Conclusion
Aswestatedearlier,euphemismisoneoftheimportantanduniversallinguisticphenomena.Duetothespecialcharacteristicslikesubstitution,indirectnessetc.itisbecomingoneofthemaincommunicativeapproachesThisthesishasattemptedtostudytheeuphemisticexpressionsusedinthequestion-answerpatternsfromtheperspectiveofpragmatics.
Thearticleisanoverviewofthefunctionsandcommunicativefunctionsofeuphemism,andfromthepragmaticanalysisofthematerials,itcanbeseenclearlythattheuseofeuphemismsbasicallyviolatetheQualityMaxim,theQuantityMaxim,andtheMannerMaximoftheCooperativePrincipleandthefrequencyofviolatingtheQualityMaximisthehighestamongthethreeones.Thatistosay,theeuphemismsusedinthequestion-answerpatternsgenerallydonotviolatetheRelationMaximoftheCooperativePrinciple.
ThereisanoldsayinginEnglish:Necessityisthemotherofinvention.Thecreationofeuphemismsalsocannotdepartfrompeople’sneedsofthem.Peopleneedeuphemismsforsocialcommunication,toeuphemizethetaboo,toshowtheirpolitenessandtodisguise.Asasociolinguisticphenomenon,theformationofeuphemismsistheresultofthecombinationofvarioussocialpsychologicalfactorsandpragmaticfactors.
StudiesoneuphemismsfromapragmaticperspectiverevealhoweuphemismsflouttheCooperativePrinciplesoastoobeythePolitenessPrincipleincommunicationandhowfactorsfromtheirsocioculturalandcommunicationalcontextinfluencetheirapplicationincommunication.Anychangeofoneormorefactorsofacommunicationevent,willhaveaneffectonourdecisionofwhethertouseeuphemisms.Theexpressiveeuphemismsplayanon-fungibleroleincommunication.Itiseuphemismthatmakeslanguagemorepowerful,magicalandpleasant.People’sspeechdoesreflecttheirbackground,theiractivities,andthevaluestheyhold,therefore,wecanlearnmuchabouttheEnglishpeoplebylookingattheiruseofeuphemisms.ThestudiesonEnglisheuphemismscannotonlyhelptodevelopinterculturalcommunicativecompetence,butalsoenlightenEnglishlanguagelearningandteaching.Therefore,multidisciplinary,multi-angle,andmulti-levelstudiesoneuphemismsarenecessaryforEnglishlearnerstounderstandtheEnglishhistoryandsocietyandcommunicatewithnativeEnglishspeakersbetter.Therearestillalotinthisfieldwaitingtobeexplored,andeuphemismsdeservemoreattentionandcomprehensivestudies.
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