英语委婉语起源

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【摘要】委婉语是世界文化中普遍存在的语言现象，它广泛应用于社会各阶层和领域。英语委婉语作为众多委婉语中的一种，具有其产生的深厚渊源，其中包宗教与政治的，也包括文学与历史的。本文试图从宗教、种族、政治、文学、历史等方面入手来探讨英语委婉语的产生渊源。语言反映生活，并且总是和社会紧密联系在一起，在语言交谈中，由于一定的行为规范和道德准则的制约，人们通常使用委婉语----这一“润滑剂”，使刺耳，不文雅的话变得委婉愉悦。它在人们的社会交际过程中发挥着重要作用。本文从其避讳功能、礼貌功能以及掩饰功能三方面阐释了英语委婉语的社会交际功能。通过充分理解英语委婉语的起源及其社会交际功能，进一步理解英语语言文化，以避免社会交际中的各种冲突。

【关键词】起源;交际功能;避讳;礼貌;掩饰

1.Introduction

Euphemismisaculturalphenomenonaswellasalinguisticconcept.Everylanguagehasitsowneuphemism,sodoesEnglish.Itisdeeplyrootedinsociallifeandhasagreatinfluenceonsocialcommunication.AsanindispensableandnaturalpartofEnglishlanguage,Englisheuphemismhasattractedpeople’sattentionforalongtime.SinceEuphemismwascoined,ithasplayedaveryimportantroleinpeople’scommunication.Thecommunicationwithouteuphemismisunimaginable.Euphemismisusedlikelubrication,whichmakesthecommunicationgoonsmoothly.ThisthesiswillhaveanoverviewoftheoriginofEnglisheuphemism,andstateitssocialcommunicativefunction.

Englisheuphemismasalinguisticconcept,ithascloserelationshipswiththewesternculture,andittrulyreflectsthelifeandvaluesofEnglishpeopleandtheirhistory.Euphemismisaparticularlygoodmediumforaccesstotheforceoflanguagethathasprovidedaneffectiveapproachtounderstandingthehumanmind.ThestudyofEnglisheuphemismcanhelpusunderstandthewesterncultureandpromotetheinternationaldevelopmentbecauseeuphemismiswidelyusedininternationalnegotiations.SothereisagreatneedforustostudyEnglisheuphemism,including:itsorigin,itssocialfunction,etc.

2.ThedefinitionsofEnglisheuphemism

Euphemismisauniversallinguisticphenomenon.Nearlyineverylanguage,therearesomedisgustingwords,whichmakepeoplefeelembarrassed.Intheprocessofcommunication,theunsuitableortoodirectwordswillmakepeoplefeeluncomfortable,evenangry.Thenthereisagreatneedforustouseatactfulwaytoexpressemotion,exchangeideas.Thatistosay,touseapleasant,mildorindirectwordsorphrasestaketheplaceoftabooedwords.

Itisknownthateuphemismisaformoflanguageintentionallycreatedinsocialrelationtoachieveidealcommunication.Withoutthemanylanguagewouldseemtobevulgarandrude,voidofpolitenessandvividnesstosomeextent.Asacommoncommunicationintheprocessofpeopleusinglanguage,euphemismisanimportantwayforpeopletocoordinatethesocialrelationships.Likeakindoflubrication,euphemismenablespeopletoexpresswhatcannotbeuttereddirectlyandensurescommunicationtobecarriedsmoothly.Itisalanguagestrategyincivilizedsocietyforavoidingtaboo.Itisunimaginableifthecommunicationiswithouteuphemism.

Theword“euphemism”wasderivedfromtheGreekword“euphemismos”,whichmeans“fairspeech”.Theprefix“eu”means“good,soundwell”and“pheme”means“saying”or“speech”.Andthustheliteralmeaningof“euphemism”is“tospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner”.Thatistosay,euphemismisusedasanalternativetounpleasantexpression,inordertoavoidpossibleloseofface,eitherone’sownfaceorthroughgoingoffense,thatoftheaudience,orsomeofthirdofparty.Thisunpleasantexpressionmaybetabooed,fearsome,orforsomeotherreasonsthatspeakerscan’torintendnottousesomecertainexpressiondirectlyonsomeoccasion.“InWebster’sEncyclopedicUnabridgedDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguageis‘thesubstitutionofamild,indirect,orvagueexpressionforonethoughtsubstituted’.RawsonBlunt,aBritishwriter,definedeuphemismas‘agoodfavorableinterpretationofabadword.’”[1]“EncyclopediaBritannica(1994)alsodefineseuphemismas‘afigureofspeechinwhichsomethingofanunpleasant,distressingorindelicatenatureisdescribedinlessoffensiveterms’”[2]

Fromtheabovementioned,wecouldclearlyseethateuphemismischaracterizedbyavoidancelanguageandevasiveexpression.Thespeakersusewordsorexpressionsasaprotectiveshieldagainsttheangerordisapprovalofnaturalorsupernaturalthings.Itisoneformoflanguageandalinguisticphenomenon

3.TheoriginsofEnglisheuphemism

3.1ThereligiousoriginofEnglisheuphemism

TheearliestEnglisheuphemismscomefrom“taboo”.Theword“taboo”comesfromTogan,akindofPolynesian.Itindicatesevasivelanguageoraction.[3]TheemergenceofEnglisheuphemismistomeettheneedofavoidingtaboos.Inprimitivesociety,peoplecan’texplainsuchthingsasailmentandsomesupernaturalphenomena.“Peoplehaveconfusionbetweenthenameofthethingsandthingsthemselves.Thenameisviewedasanextensionofthings.Justastheidiomsays‘Speakofdevilandheappears’.Naturallythewordsorphrasesrelatedtosuchthingsbecometaboos.”[4]Intheancienttimes,peoplehadblindfaithinghostsandGodstheyrespected.Theywhisperedandevenfearedthemsotheydidnotdaretoaddresstheirnamesdirectly.TheythinkitprofanetonameGod.Thereforethenamesofgodsbecometheearliesttaboos.Tospeaknameofgodswastoevokethedivinitywhosepowerthenhadtobeconfronted.Suchdangerouspracticeswerereservedforpriestsskilledinnegotiatingwiththesupernatural.Sotheusualwaytoavoidistoemployeuphemisms.Therefore,forthereligiousneed,alotofeuphemismsaboutreligionemerged.Forexample,inordernottodesecrateGod,peopleinEnglish-speakingcountryalwaysusesomeothernameforGodinsteadofcallingdirectly,suchas“Adonai,theAlmighty,Caesar’sCruth,theCreater,Dod,Gad,Land,Lawks,Lawd.”[5]Theoppositesideofgodisdevil,whichismoreterribleforpeople.Whenpeoplerefertothem,theytendtousesucheuphemismstoreplace:D,theBigD,theEvilone,theBlackone,theGoodman,Jesse,Oldboy,Ourfather,Lordoflords,Kingofkings,theLightoftheworld,etc.[6]

Fromtheabovementioned,wecanfindthatreligionbringsmanyeuphemistictermsinthereligiousmatter,especiallythenamingandaddressingofGodtothelanguage.

3.2TheracialandnationaloriginsofEnglisheuphemism

Itisknowntoall,thephenomenonofracialdiscriminationisdeeplyrootedinAmericainwhich“equalopportunity”isflatteredbyAmericanwhitepeopleasanequalrightenjoyedbyeveryone.Duetothepressureofsocialpublicopinion,althoughsomewhitesdiscriminatetheblackfromtheirheart,theywillnotexposethiskindofprejudiceinpublic.Meanwhile,fewpeopledaretohumiliateandpersecuteblackspubliclyfornoreasonatall.Inotherwords,thewayofdiscriminationbecomestactful.Therearemanyeuphemismsemergingforthisreason.Inthe1930s,‘nigger’isstillaneutralnouninEngland,andhasnomeaningofhumiliatingblacks.Butsincethiswordhastheobviousmeaningofdiscriminatingtheblacks,mostofpeopleinEnglandandAmericansusesomeothereuphemisticwords,suchas“coloredblack”instead.Whentalkingaboutsomeotherraces,itdoesnotoftenusethedirectwordsthatarerelatedtocolor.Peopleoftenusesomeeuphemisticexpression,suchasthegeographicname.

3.3Historical,literaryandpoliticaloriginsofEnglisheuphemism

FromthetimetheNormansconqueredEnglandin1066,Englishhasemergedmanyeuphemisms.Atthattime,themainreasontouseeuphemismisthatthelanguageusedbytheconqueredisoftendisparaged,andisthoughtasgrosslanguage.Theupperclasssurelydoesn’twanttolowertheirstatustousesuchwords.Inordertoavoidusingsuchgrosswords,theytendtouse“theelegantwords”,whichoriginatedfromLatin.AndthesewordsweremixedintoEnglishgradually.

Therearealsomanyeuphemismsinliteraryworks.Forexample,inHamlet,Shakespeareusetheexpression“Theundiscoveredcountryfromwhosebournnotravelerreturns”(从来不曾有一个旅人回来过的神秘之国)toexpresshisgreatsympathyforHamlet.[7]ThefamousAmericanwriterMarkTwainuse“release”toexpress“die”inhisworkTheAdventureofTomSawyer.Besides,politicsisafertileareafortheappearanceandgrowthofEnglisheuphemism,whichiscosmeticinexpressionbutdeceptiveinnature.Euphemismsofthiskindarealwaysconsciouslyanddeliberately.ThecosmeticeuphemismcanbeeasilyfoundinAmericanEnglish.Government’sdiscussionoftheVietnamWarwassaturatedwitheuphemisms.Villagesburnedandinhabitantsimprisonedwere‘Pacifications”;thewaritselfwasnotawarbuta“conflict”,the“bombing”becomes“logisticalstrike”or“closeairsupport”,and“killing”becomes“wastingtheenemy”.Theseeuphemismsareusedtodeceiveandtohidethedirtybusinessofwar.[8]Theuseofsuchpoliticaleuphemismshelpsgovernmenttobeautifytheactionandpreventpeoplefromtakinganyanti-governmentaction.Soinordertosatisfythepoliticalneeds,manyeuphemismscometoexist.

4.ThesocialcommunicativefunctionofEnglisheuphemism

Fromtheperspectiveoflanguagecommunication,euphemismfunctionstoavoidtaboos,toshowpolitenessandconcealfeelings.Thankstoeuphemism,itiseasyforpeopletoacceptthethingsthatarelikelytomakeothersfeelembarrassedorunhappy.Itispeople’sgeneralcharactertoexpresstheirideasasmildlyandtactfullyaspossible.Euphemismhelpspeopletoreachthisgoal.Fromthemomenteuphemismcameintoexistence,ithasplayedaveryimportantroleinourdailycommunication,andhelpestablishagoodrelationshipbetweenhumanbeingsandevenstrengthenthesocialstability.Euphemismaremotivatedbythedesirenottobeoffensive.Peopleusethemtoshowtheirpoliteness,toavoidbeingoffensiveandtomeetthepsychologicalandbeneficialneedsofbothspeakersandhearersincommunication.Butsometimestheyareusedtoconcealorcoversomething.Accordingly,euphemismservesthreebasiccommunicativefunctions:evasivefunction,politefunctionandcosmeticfunction.

4.1TheevasivefunctionofEnglisheuphemism

Theevasivefunctionofeuphemismistoevadeusingtaboos,enablingthespeakertotalkabouttabooedthingsfreely.Thesetabooedthingsarebelievedtobedangeroustocertainindividuals,ortothesocietyasawhole,ortobedisgustingandunpleasant,andcausefear.Suchtabooedthingsinclude:disease,disabilities,death,sex,bodyexcretionandbodyeliminationprocess,etc.Peoplecanuseeuphemismstotalkaboutwhatcannotbetalkeddirectly.

4.1.1Intermsofdiseaseanddisabilities

Peopleyearnforhealth,andfearforspecificdiseaseandeverysortofdisability.Sopeoplealwaysusetactfulwaytoexpressthem.Forexample,sexualorvenerealdiseasesuchassyphilis,gonorrhoea,ADIS,etc.arecalled“socialdisease”,‘communicativedisease”,etc.inEnglish.Besides,disabilitiesareverysensitiveareaineveryculture.InEnglish,“thedisabled,thehandicapped,theinconvenienced,theinvalid,auditoryimpaired,hardofhearing,talkwithone’sfingers”,etc.areputintoservice.[9]Soeuphemismplaysaveryimportantfunctioninoursocialcommunication.Withoutit,wesometimescannotcontinueourtalk.

4.1.2Intermsofdeath

Deathisaninevitablestageattheendoflife’sjourney.Itiscommonexperienceofhumanbeings.Yetithasbeenthesourceoffear—fearofthelossoflovedones;fearoftheendofone’slife;fearoftheactualprocessofdying.Therefore,allthesefears,worries,andunpleasantfeelingscombinedleadtoverbaltabooofdeath.Euphemismsconcerningdeathareextremelyrich.InEnglish,therearemorethanseventyeuphemismsfor“death”,including“tobegone,tobegonetoabetterworld,tobewithGod,tobreathone’slast,tocloseone’sday,todepartfromtheworldforever,todeparttoGod,tofallasleep,jointhegreatmajority,passaway,etc.[10]Nomatterwhythiswordisusedinacertainlanguage,peoplealwaystendtouselessharshwords

4.1.3Intermsofsex,bodyexcretionandbodyeliminationprocess

Wordsrelatingtosex,procreationandexcretionarehighlyrestrictedtomentionbecausetheymayevokedisgustingresponsesofpeople.Verbaltabooonthemisprobablymotivatedbytheintuitivedisaster,shame.Peopleallhavecertainfeelingsofwhichtheyaresoashamedthattheydon’tliketoadmiteventothemselves.Inpeople’sdailylifeorinsomeformaloccasion,ifthetalkordiscussionreferstosomethingaboutdrainage,peoplewilltrytoavoidusingvulgarlanguage.Theytendtousesomeimpliedorneutralwordstomakeconversationcomfortable.Forordinarypeople,thesafestwaytoavoidmentioningthesethingsthattheyhavetomentioninmanycircumstancesistouseanotherexpression—euphemismtoreplacethetruenameofsuchathing.Forexample,inEnglishtherearemanyelegantexpressionsfor“goingtoWC”,suchas:towashone’shand,tospendapenny,togoandseeone’saunt,toanswerthecallofnature,becausenaturecalls,etc.[11]

“Thetopicconcerningbeingpregnantistouchybecauseittendstoarousetheassociationwithsexualbehaviors.‘Tobeatroundbushes’isverynecessary,suchas“withchild”,“anticipating”,“excepting”for“pregnant”,etc.[12]Talkingaboutsexualintercourseistaboo.Expressionsrelatingtosexhaveheavilybeenveiledforthepurposeofavoidingawkwardnessandoffense.Sopeopleuseeuphemisticwordstotalkaboutit.Forexample,peopleevadesaying“hip”directlywhichisreplacedwith“buttock”,“bottom”,“one’sthing”,and“secretparts”donatessexorgansofbothmalesandfemales.[13]

4.1.4Intermsofoldage

EnglishandChinesehavedifferentfeelingsabout“oldage”.AChineseisproudofbeingold,whereasawesternerwillfeelirritatedandeveninsultedatmentioninghisoldness.InEnglishculture,peopledonotdescribeothersasortobedescribedas“old”becausetheold,whonolongerwork,areignoredbysociety.Therefore,peoplecreate“thesecondchildhoodgoldenyears,seniorcitizen,grayhair,maturegoldenage”whentheyreferto“oldage”inwhichitattemptstoconcealthefactofbecomingoldandavoidarousingoldpeople’ssadfeelingofaging.[14]

4.2ThepolitefunctionofEnglisheuphemism.

Politenessisanotherimportantfunctionthateuphemismsserveinthesociallife.Politenessisthesymbolofhuman’scivilizationandoneoftheimportantprinciplesguidingpeople’sactivities.Asakindofsignificantsocialactivity,languageactivitymustobservethisprinciple,too.Whenwehavetotalksomethingunpleasant,weshouldchooseeuphemisticwaytoexpressinordernottohurtothers.Beingpoliteisareasonableactionthatanyonewhoiskeenonface-savingwilltake.Thepolitefunctionofeuphemismistriedtoavoidbeingharshorimpoliteinthecommunication.Inotherwords,euphemismsaretominimizeimpoliteexpressionsandmaximizepoliteexpressions.Forinstance,whenateachercommentsonastudent’smoralconductsandschoolworkinfrontofthestudentorhisorherparent,heorsheshouldreportthefactononehand,andontheotherhandshouldtakeintoconsiderationthestudent’spsychologicalenduranceandtheparent’sface.Sotheeuphemisticwaytoexpressmightbe“Thestudentisabitslowforhisorherage”insteadof“Thestudentisstupid”.[15]

ThepolitefunctionofEnglisheuphemismisembodiedineveryoccupationallanguage.Occupationaldiscriminationgivespeoplepressureandemotionalirritation.Althougheuphemismscannotuprootthiskindofphenomenon,atleast,theycangivethemsomepsychologicalcomfortbyupgradingofcareername.Therefore,“engineer,manager,etc.”havebecomemoreandmorefashionable.“Dustman”ischangedto“sanitaryengineer”;“mechanic”to“automobileengineer”,“gardener”to“landscapearchitect”,“shoemaker”to“shoerebuilder”[16]InEnglish,therearemanyadjectivesaboutpeople’sappearance,suchas“goodlooking,handsome,pretty,charming,attractive”,etc.Theyareallcommendatorywords.Whentalkingaboutsomeonewhoisnotpretty,wecannotuse“ugly”or‘awfully’.Wehadbetterusesomeeuphemismssuchas“plain,ordinary,notparticularlylooking”,etc.insteadofthem.Soeuphemism’spolitefunctioncansavepeople’sfaceintheirprocessofcommunication.Itissoimportantthatwecannotneglectit.

4.3ThecosmeticfunctionofEnglisheuphemism

Besidestheevasiveandpolitefunction,euphemismhasthecosmeticfunction.Thiskindofeuphemismisusuallyusedinthegovernment,military,politicsandcommerce.Itreferstousinggoodwordstobeautifythings,whicharenotbeautifulinrealityandmakethethingbemorepersuadedandacceptable.Becauseeuphemismhasthenatureofvagueness,tosomeextent,itisdeceptive.Traditionallyspeaking,euphemismplaysapositiveroleinsociallife.Usingit,peoplecanavoidsomeembarrassedandungraciousoccasion.Butjustaseverycoinhastwosides,euphemismhasnoexception.Usingitsuitablycancoordinatesocialrelationships,butabusingitwillmisleadthepublic,willcoveruptheessenceofthings.Forexample,inmodernWesternsociety,thepooriscalledas“theneedy”,lateritwaschangedto“theculturallydeprived”,thento“theunderprivileged”,atlastto“thedisadvantaged”.Soitwillconfusepeoplethatthiscountryissorichthatthereisnopoorpeopleatall.

Firstly,thegovernmentandthemilitaryoftenusethemtodisguisetherealityfromtruth.Theydescribe“economiccrisis”as“recession”or“depression”;“attack”as“activedefense”.[17]Atthebeginningof20thcentury,therelationshipbetweenlaborandcapitalbecomestrained,andtheagitationofstrikingbecameaserioussocialproblem.Inordertohidethefact,politicianscallthestrainedlabor-capitalrelationshipas“industrialclimate”,strikingas“industrialaction”.Ifthenegotiationbetweenlaborandcapitalissuccessful,itwillbeclaimedas“productive”,onthecontrary,itis“counter-productive”.[18]

Secondly,thiskindofeuphemismiswidelyusedincommerce.Itisoftenusedtoplaytricksandtodeceivethecustomers.Thecommercialexaggeratestheproduct’sfunctionandquality.Inthesameway,theEnglisheuphemismisalsousedtomakecustomersfeelpleased.Forexample,inordertomeetthepassengers’senseofdignity,someAirlinescallFirstClassDeluxeClassorPremiumClass;SecondClassFirstClass;andThirdClassbecomeBusinessClass,EconomicClass,orTouristClass.[19]Doinglikethese,itseemsthatallpassengers’positionarepromoted.Theirpurposeistoattractmorepassengersandgainmoreprofitsbyusingeuphemismsinthecommunication,meanwhile,thecustomersfeelmoredecent,andithelpscustomerssaveface.

Inshort,euphemismofthiskindmaymakeanideamorepalatable,buttheyinflatelanguage,reduceprecisionandoftentamperwithtruth.Somepeoplecondemneuphemismasdemoralizingbecauseofitshypocrisy,whichotherconsiderthemusefulintheaspectofcoordinatingsocialrelationships.However,thefactremainsthateuphemismsareverymuchapartofthelanguage,andwhat’smoreimportantforusisnottodebatetheirmeritsordemerits,butrathertobeabletorealizethatEnglisheuphemismcanserveforthespecialsocialactivitiesundercertaincircumstance.

5.Conclusion

EnglisheuphemismasanessentialpartofEnglishlanguage,isobservedeverywhereandwidelyusedinpeople’sdailycommunication.

OntheissueoftheoriginandsocialcommunicativefunctionofEnglisheuphemism,thisthesishasatentativeexploration.Butthiskindofexplorationisinastateofdevelopmentbecauseeuphemismisdevelopedallthetime.Euphemismrootsineveryaspectofsociallife,andisdevelopedwiththeadvancementofsociety.EnglisheuphemismisamirrorofWesterncultureintheformofEnglishlanguage.Fromthemomentitwasborn,ithasdistinctculturecolor.Euphemismundoubtedlyreflectstheinnerrelationshipamongtheculturaltradition,socialvaluesandtheformoflanguage.

Inspeechinteraction,sometimes,outofpolitenessortact,oneusesapleasant,lessdirectwordinsteadofsomethingunpleasant.Usingeuphemismisspeaker’sactivepragmaticstrategyinacertaintimeandacertainsituation.EnglisheuphemismpromotesthedevelopmentofEnglishlanguage,andenrichesthevocabulariesofEnglishlanguage,givingpeopleafeelingofwarmandfresh.Inthe21stcentury,withthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,manysocialproblemsrise,too.Peoplecraveforthegentle,warmandeasyunderstoodwords.Euphemismemergesceaselesslyjustrightformeetingthispsychologicalneed.Asacommoncommunicationmediumandarhetoricmethod,Englisheuphemismwillbeusedwiderandwider.Somescholarsholdtheopinionthatitisunreasonabletouseeuphemismbecausetheyhavethenatureofdeceit,especiallyinpoliticsandgovernment.Butwecannotdenythefactthateuphemismisveryhelpfulintheprocessofhumancommunication.Twenty-firstcenturyisaperiodwhenpeopleofdifferentculturehaveevenmoretoucheswitheachother.SoitisvitalforustohaveagoodunderstandingofEnglisheuphemism.Itisunimaginableifthediplomaticnegotiationiswithouteuphemism.Usingeuphemismisakindoflanguageskillthateachofusshouldmaster.

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